Foreign policy of the U.S. after 9/11

September 11 was said to have "defined" even "transformed" the Bush presidency. It seemed forgotten that Bush had come into office with little interest in and even less knowledge of international affairs. while he admitted during his election campaign, 'I'm not going to play like I've been a person who's spent hours involved with foreign policy."(Not even hours) since 9/11 he has as huge foreign policy as possible. (Huberman, 2003, p. xii). On the other hand, within a year, Bush –who as a candidate had said the U.S. should be "humble", presented his dramatic choice to the world, his message was clear: the glob had changed and America would fight back (Albright, 2003, 155). The military intervention that the U.S. led in Afghanistan, scattering al Qaeda and toppling the Taliban reinforced that message. As Albright says (2003) the next steps include: military action to prevent Al Qaeda from finding sanctuary across the Afghan border in Pakistan; then political action to build democratic institutions throughout Afghanistan and ensure that radical elements would not reestablish a foothold there. And third step was enlisting the help of Afghanistan's neighbors-including Iran, Pakistan, and the Muslim countries of central Asia- to forge the most powerful possible coalition against al Qaeda.
Clearly, the goal would be to 1) destroy Bin Laden's network, 2) isolate the rest, and 3) prevent it from putting down new roots.
In 2002 Bush adapted an approach which had unwanted effects. In his state of the union address Bush focused not on the nation-building in Afghanistan, but on the so-called "axis of evil"-Iraq, Iran, and North Korea. It seems after 9/11 the U.S. began to exercise its power, particularly in the Middle East to "redraw the map" in its own perceived interests. September 11 brought to the force the most aggressive' right-wing elements in the defense and foreign-policy apparatus-those who believed the U.S. should freely impose her power.

To achieve these goals, division of budget changed completely; War handed Bush a virtual blank check. Old glory was printed in the cover of Bush's first post-9/11 budget proposal and it was all billed as a vital to national security-from budget-busting tax cuts, attacks on unions, oil-drilling in Alaska national wildlife refuge, and a massive military spending spree to an enormous expansion of presidential powers and broad curtailments of Americans ' civil liberties. the president emphasized on America's unilateral intention to maintain "military strength beyond challenge". After 9/11, in 2002, the U.S. military budget was larger than the world's next fifteen largest combined. Its one-year defense spending increase alone was larger than the entire military budget of Britain or Russia (Albright, 2003, 156). To go with their out of control military buildup, U.S. adapted a national security doctrine that was radical in its assertion of U.S. prerogatives. In his national security strategy, the president asserted the right to attack foreign nations, even in absence of an imminent threat; if the U.S. just suspects that anyone might one day take an action against her.
Thus their intention was clear; they decided to invade Iraq and depose Saddam Hussein, with or without the cooperation or approval of the U.N. or approval of their closest allies. Destroying Saddam's regime, which was told threatened U.S., was a sudden and urgent action which has done by an extravagant extrapolation of the war on terror. To achieve his goal, the president asked every country to oppose Al Qaeda, although many countries hate terrorism but they were reluctant to be with the United States. Bush's policies and his public diplomacy of describing Iraq and al Qaeda as two aspects of the same threat led many Americans to think definitely that Saddam had been behind the 9/11.

But the tip is that the motives of the U.S. in fighting terror, after 9/11, are not considered sincere. Many people , and not only in Muslims societies, believe that America's real aim are to control oil, defeat Muslims, advance the interest of Israel, and dominate the world (Albright, 2003, 159). By these policies after the 9/11 public opinion became more negative; While in the week after 9/11 public opinions was overwhelmingly sympathetic to the U.S. , within two years, a far different picture had emerge; Majorities in many Muslim countries feared that the U.S. was planning to attack them.
As a conclusion it should be said that Bush's foreign policy led America from 9/11 to invasion some suspicious countries. U.S. also accused some countries which opposed to fighting terror such as Germany and French. All of these have been resulted in the split between Muslims and the United States, given new life to Al Qaeda, and made far more difficult the challenge of defeating international terror. Moreover, resentment and hostility toward U.S. even among the closest allies have been increased.
Fareed Zakaria argues that in the first two years of Bush administration, the U.S. reneged on more international treaties; the president asked congress to authorize a new generation of nuclear weapons to add to the already daunting arsenal of the United States. In fact, After 9/11 he rejected, or undermined the AMB Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention, the nuclear weapons comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, the international criminal court, the convention on banning landmines, the U.N. conference on small arms, and the Kyoto accord on global warming (Huberman cited form Fareed Zakaria, 2003, p. 157) and this is a formula for international anarchy, not domestic security, because it could lead to spiral wars without end.
A major principle that can be used to describe the basis of the U.S. foreign policy is "better to be feared than loved", the American vision is a vision of perpetual war… it is a dismal dream, and an ignoble guide for American foreign policy.

Sources:
Albright, M. (2003). The mighty and the almighty, reflections on America, God, and world affairs. Harper.

Huberman, J. (2003). The Bush –hater's handbook. Nation books. New York.

“An empire of wealth” by John Steele Gordon (2004)

In the process of creation “empire of wealth”, the economy of the United States has experienced enormous bursts in 1800s.
Gordon tries to explain how the economy of the United States developed and change to a dynamic economy.
He begins the story from the mid 1800 when the federal government operated in deficit, the national debt increased and the treasury depleted.
In order to solving these problems, the government began to sell bonds and taxed all kind of property, rents, interests, salaries. Totally everything else was taxed as well. On the other hand, it began to printing money. The results of issuing fiat money were inflation and hoarding. In that condition congress established a system of nationally chartered banks which were allowed to issue banknotes. During the war despite the improvement of industry, in the south, most of the industries were destroyed as a result of war; the bonds and paper money issued by confederate became worthless, agriculture devastated, the cotton crop could not be exported.
With the end of the war and slavery, a new system of agriculture developed and the system of sharecropping arose. In that time the economy of south based on agriculture and extractive industry.
In The time between Civil War and world war, the American economy, changed profoundly, grew instantly and became more diversified. After the Civil War the economy of the union was a kind of unstable capitalism without regulation and regulators.
There was no central bank and mechanism to regulate the nation’s money supply. By 1900 there were many state-chartered banks which were small and financially weak. Gradually, the national banking act and the tax on banknotes issued by state-chartered banks, gave the country a uniform currency for the first time. In the following years industry and trading ameliorated; industry companies grew rapidly and railroads organized as corporations. The expansion of American railroads after Civil War was extraordinary; in fact United States established the largest railroad system in the world. Railroading became the country’s largest industry. Naturally just government could regulate this enormous industry.
Something else that influenced all sectors of economy was steel. Declining the cost of production of steel and its limitless using, enhanced the industrial power. Also, the American economy was increasingly fueled by oil. The expansion of standard oil affected the economic system profoundly.
Clearly, the growth of American industry changed the nature of American foreign trade. The United States became an exporter of agriculture and mineral products and manufactured goods. In 1900 United States exported locomotives, engines, rails, electrical machinery, wire, pipes, boilers and other goods. By 1907 American exports doubled and the United States enjoyed its prosperity.
In 1913 by the new Federal Reserve System, there was established a central bank that was the turning point in the economic history of the United States.
One of the features of United States was that the concept of primogeniture never had mean. The country prepared the condition for writers, artists, scholars and robber barons. The United States was a great cultural and intellectual power as it was an economic one.
The first years of the 20th century seemed as dawn of a new era of progress and prosperity. The country was advancing economically and socially as never before.
In fact Gordon focuses that most of the economic problems in the United States resulted from the Jeffersonian legacy of weak, and poorly regulated financial institutions-a The absence of a central bank caused many of the excessive booms and busts of the nineteenth century.
The story of “empire of wealth” is so entertaining and informative for understanding the trend of forming the robust economic system of the united state.

A New Republic by John Lukas, (2004)

Immigration of masses of people to United States was a determinant element in the character of the nature. In nineteen century huge numbers of people from British Isles, German, Scandinavia, Russia, Italy, Greek and other countries were immigrating to united stats. In the last years of nineteen century and in the First World War the rate of immigration grew.
Huge immigration had bilateral effects on Americans and immigrants.
Immigrants changed America; Immigration changed the religious and racial composition and America. One of the results of immigration was the transformation of American patriotism into nationalism. Immigration influenced the foreign policy. It Influenced on American life and culture from food to drink to music to movie industry. Even the pattern of Germanic education influenced American education.
America changed immigrants; the immigrants conformed to America and requirements of American life, they became Americanized. Americanization gave the exceptional pattern of behavior, speech and thought which made them different from non-Americans. Democratic nature of American system was something that immigrants found as an exceptional character of United States and tried to internalize that.
The influences of immigration on America and influences of America on immigrants made the nation with new men and women.

The two empires:
Until 1897 the British Empire was the greatest power in the earth. It was the largest empire in the history of the world. It had a quarter of the population of the world, it owned one fifth of all the land of globe, and its navy ruled most of the seas. British parliament, industry, sports, cloths, language were the most powerful ones the in glob. Those years were zenith of British power and British prestige.
During the years 1895 and 1898 between the relationship of Great Britain and the United States a revolution occurred. The alliance between United States and British in both world wars led to their victory and gradual abdication of the British Empire and continuing rise of American empire. The spirit of American imperialism was strengthening more and more. Eventually, by 1900 the idea of Pax Britannica replaced with the image of Pax Anglo-Americana.
The important point is the similarity of Great Britain and the United States. Americanization of the world was Anglicizing, somehow. English-speaking language and Protestantism were the most important elements that the two nations were in common.
On the other hand the conception of American and British Empire were different. While the dynamism and expansive sensation of the American empire were growing, the dynamism and expansion of British Empire began to decrease. The Americans were thinking about their manifest destiny while the British Empire was older than American one.
During the first decade of the new century England became more and more American. On one hand social distribution of power in both nations was the same and on the other hand their public culture was similar.
After the war in 1918 United States became the greatest power in the world. In fact the financial center of the world moved from London to New York. The president of the United States became a universally admired statesman of the world. In sum in the history of the United States the zenith of the American power was 1918. Another apogee of the United States power was in 1945.
By 1950 the democratic society moved to a bureaucratic one. It was bureaucracy that developed and institutionalized, that is why mass man replaced by organization man. Bureaucratization did not limited to government but a productive economy transited to an administrative economy. On the other hand all aspects of life including private lives were democratized.
Totally the nation which was created at the peak of the Modern Age became the representative of western civilization.

Imperial Grunts; the American Military on the Ground(2005) by Robert D.Kaplan

Robert Kaplan's Imperial Grunts is an examination of life on the ground for the American military in faraway lands. Kaplan begins whit describing Yemeni from the point of U.S. military source. He illustrates Yemeni as a conveniently chaotic in the heart of the Arabia. In that stovepipe bureaucracy, all of the power was in the hand of President Ali Abdullah Saleh and Americans was just tribe that Saleh trusted. Ali Muhsen Saleh was the second powerful man in Yemeni after Saleh, he controlled an armored division that protected the capital. Terrorism, in Yemeni was so common. People were aggressive, commercial-minded, and well-armed. Yemeni had more assault rifles and grenade in the world. Tribal kingdoms in Yemeni-in all cities- grew and created imperial and aristocracies.
The whole Yemeni summarized in four worlds:” family, village, tribe, guns-tinker, tailor, soldier, spy. By empowering aristocracies, internecine violence and civil wars grew and because of disorganization, soviet found Yemeni government easy to change and in 1990 south Yemeni state collapsed in the course of the worldwide dissolution. In any case something that existed in all Yemeni was tribal feuds and the problem was that how to manage such an emporium.
Also Kaplan gives a history of the role Special Forces have played in Colombia. The role of U.S. Army Special Forces expanded in Colombia. The army was better gauged in Colombia, which represented a severe form of social breakdown than Yemeni or anyplace in the Middle East. reliance on American techniques and weapons systems, and the relationships between American officers and their third world protégés, gave the U.S. the access it needed to train a third world army.
While the United States army special forces couldn’t reform the whole Colombia army, it could improve some of the host country’s elite units which could then project power into the FARC-controlled badlands. The training of foreign armies provided the green berets’ basic function. Yet military was the most respected institution in Colombia, a large percentage of Colombia than Yemeni was considered by American military to be injun country. Key here is the conclusion that American power can only be exercised in a sustained way through discreet relationships at provinces and tribes. Author explains about transparent humanitarian role for SF. The task that United States appeared to have in both Yemeni and Colombia was similar and it was similarly impossible to make countries out of places that were never meant to be countries.

Reaganite Realism Should Guide Foreign Policy -Richard V. Allen

Richard V. Allen as Reagan's first national security advisor explains Reagan's policies in his administration era. Allen believes that the mystery of Reagan's success is his believe in "having simple answers to complex question not to be simplistic". He argues that Regan tried to deal with foreign challenges and domestic struggles that have treated United States but there were some principals that Regan was regarding in his policies; first of all Regan did not believe in military power for strategic problems, Reagan had a plan, a grand strategy and at the same time he welcomed advisors'ideas and tried to learn from adversaries.
In Regan era as other administrations, United States had encountered with various foreign challenges especially Islamic terrorism. Allen explains how Regan acted in that critical situation. The foreign policy of the United States during Reagan administration was the strategy of "peace and strength".
As Allen cites Reagan brought the Cold War to a peaceful conclusion. He changed the policy of "détente" by the previous administrations- Nixon, Ford, and Carter- . In his new policy he focused on three fronts; decrease Soviet access to high technology and diminish their resources, including depressing the value of Soviet commodities on the world market; increase American defense expenditures to strengthen the U.S. negotiating position; and force the Soviets to devote more of their economic resources to defense and the most visible was the massive American military build-up.
Another Reagan's proposal was the Strategic Defense Initiative, he believed that defense prevented nuclear war. Reagan's supporters argued that SDI gave Reagan a stronger bargaining position.
In a policy which became known as the "Reagan doctrine", he supported anti-communism groups around the world. He found communism as a grotesque chapter in human history and he predicted that communism would collapse.
When Gorbachev ascended to power and offered to winding down the arms race, Reagan employed a skillful diplomacy and invited Gorbachev to peace. As a result of unique Reagan's policies, in 1988 the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Eastern Europe and also in 1989, their forces withdrew from Afghanistan. Some scholars believe that Reagan had made world safe from nuclear war.
Allen notices to the policies that Reagan had employed about Israel and Lebanon. When United States joined a unanimous U.N. Security Council Resolution and demanded that Israel withdraw from Lebanon, Reagan announced the formation of a new multinational force with France and Italy and defined a commission to "enabling the Lebanese Government to resume full sovereignty over its capital. As the president said his goal was just making it possible for the lawful authorities of Lebanon. As the result of Reagan's drastic diplomacy, according to an agreement, Lebanon and Israel ended the states of war and Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon.
About Persian Gulf, from my point of view, contrary to Allen view, Reagan's diplomacy was not fixed; it should be said that the main interest of the Reagan team regarding the Persian Gulf was landlocked Afghanistan which Soviet troops had entered in 1979 ,not Iran, or war, Reagan devoted resources to building up U.S military infrastructure in the Gulf. At first Iran remained on the back burner of the administration's policy concerns, in 1982 when Iranian troops invaded Iraq, it became obvious to Baghdad, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait that it was not possible to defeat Iran. Thus the official attention focused on the situation in the Persian Gulf. United States found that this condition threatened the stability of American allies in the region and they blamed Iran intransigence for its continuance. On the other hand U.S employed the policy of selling arms to Iran in order to forestall soviet political gains and American hostage in Lebanon. But after Iran-contra revelation United States engaged military in the Gulf against Iranian forces. Reagan's unstable policies toward Iran influenced Iran policy and in over all led to a loose of American prestige and influenced in the third world.
Totally Reagan era is evaluates as a good and moral period as I mentioned in dealing with foreign affairs, the administration was anti- communist, employed a foreign policy of "peace and strength" and played a major role in the end events of the Cold War. The collapse of the Soviet Union transformed the world from a bipolar to a unipolar military structure, providing America a unique "window of opportunity. Because of Reagan's policies and the results of them Reagan's presidency was known to many as the "Reagan Revolution,"

“Taming American power” by Stephen M. Walt

Stephen M. Walt notices to bilateral position of the United States as mightiest state in the whole world. On one hand its power is a source of pride and opportunity and gives it security and capacity to mold the world according to its interest and values, and on the hand, rest of the world find united states a big trouble and response to this power in the way that might threat the unique position of the united states and disable America to achieve its foreign policy goals and may eventually undermine its dominant position.
At first , the author explain the dominant global position of the united states and the process in which it used its power to mold the world according to its own interests and values since the end of the cold war. After cold war, presidents George H.W. Bush, William Clinton, and George W. Bush made American primacy with the motto of peace, prosperity, and justice. All of them wanted to create liberal –capitalist world order, while they applied different approaches; President George H.W. Bush and President Clinton followed this goal via multilateral institutions which had been created since 1845, but Bush administration found unilateralism more practical than multilateralism. They tried to increase U.S. power and influence to prevent the speared of weapons of mass destruction, to librated the world economy and to promote the core U.S. values of democracy and human rights.
United States is the only great power in modern history; it has the largest economy ( after world war II its share of global production is 50 percent, it is also more divers and self-sufficient than other economic powers) , overwhelming military supremacy (the U.S. defense expenditures is seven times larger than that of the china which is the number-two power) , institutional influence (U.S. plays a unique role in the most important global organizations such as WTO, IMF and world bank), dominant cultural and ideological impact (U.S. has a great soft power to shape preferences of others through the inherent attractiveness of U.S. culture, ideology , and institution) and even a favorable geopolitical position Clearly, with these positions, U.S. is the first in the order, importance, and authority.
Desire of primacy was the momentous goal of United States that it was trying for, before the cold war. In fact, collapse of the Soviet Union was the intended result of four decades of U.S. effort. Since then U.S. began to promote a favorable imbalance of power; for example it claimed that United States should maintain military capabilities large enough to discourage potential rivals from trying to compete. It prevented from spread of weapon particularly nuclear weapons while it remains the strongest conventional forces. Another example is that United States leaders always claimed to uphold democratic values and to promote United States ideals of democracy and human rights, while, after the end of the cold war, democracy and human rights became an invisible issue on the united sates foreign policy agenda.
Primacy does not protect U.S. from all dangers because it creates fear and resentment around the world. From a realist point of view, American position in the world alarms and angers others and U.S. will face suspicion and resentment, because other states are sensitive to the balance of power and when one state becomes stronger than the others they get uncomfortable, they find the super-power as a potential threat to the rest. According to constructivism, primacy is a danger for U.S. because other states respond to the physical power that the United States possesses, and to the policies it pursues and even to the ways US power is described an understood.
The fact is that the U.S. has abused its power and harmed other states which were not evil. “Conflicts of interests” is another thing that frightens other states, because each country has its own condition, history, resources, geographic location and…. Thus the interests of various states with various conditions may lead to conflicts of interests and as a result the most powerful state ignores or damages other states interests in the interest of itself. On the other hand it is not certain that how the United States will behave in future, maybe it will not remain benevolent and maybe it will become aggressive in the future. An other reason that causes countries feel uncomfortable is that even if United States does not want to use from its power against other states, its policies damage them because foreign policy has unintended consequences, mightier states have more freedom to action and more damage others even if they do not mean to do it. Therefore, due to these explanations, many countries are increasingly uncomfortable with United States primacy. Some others are opposed America, they created the concept of anti-Americanism. They found America as an evil which has immoral culture and society and suffers from various sorts of social ills..
History shows that United States damaged many states dramatically. North Korea and People’s Republic of china have experienced a long period of American hostility. U.S., also, waged war against Germany and Japan in World War II, killed huge number of people in each society, dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. United States intervened in Cuba, Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and elsewhere in order to protect its business interests. Anti-Americanism is the result of both previous and current global position which has created by United States policies.

But yet there are few countries seem willing to contort the United States directly. Their pro-Americanism arises from the fear that American culture is too attractive, they claim that U.S. political system is based on a set of universal principals of individual rights and human liberty.

Stephen M. Walt also, noticed that United States primacy does not prevent weaker states from challenging its power, provided that they can do so without threatening core U.S. interests .it means that states those want to do something against United States would seek to windows of opportunity because attacking U.S. directly led to an inevitable forceful U.S. response- the same thing that happened to al Qaeda after September 11-.
He considers to various strategies that states may employ to oppose United States primacy; states may response to super power by balancing power against the dominant states. Traditional balance-of-power theory argues that the material capabilities including population, economic wealth, military power, and natural resources should be distributed among states. In any case the countries that want to balance the distribution of power are trying to improve their position vis-à-vis the United States. Balancing can be done by mobilizing internal resources or by allying with others; “Soft balancing” (with others), “hard balancing” (on their own), “internal balancing” (through various asymmetric strategies) are the ways of balancing. Balking is another strategy that states can employ, in this strategy they ignore U.S. request. By binding they try to constrain US behavior within an overarching set of international institutions. Blackmail also can be an effective strategy in which blackmaker should harm U.S. interests or convince U.S leader.

After all it should be said United States still remains the dominant world power, but it must change its foreign policy and welcomes the benevolent use of its power to obtain more legitimacy.

review on "Who are we?" by Samuel Huntington, 2004

review on "Who are we? " by Samuel Huntington, 2004

In “WHO ARE WE?” Huntington has argued about some critical questions facing American national identity. Huntington argues about some elements which are threats for American consciousness; globalization, cosmopolitanism, immigration, sub nationalism, and anti-nationalism. Because of all these elements and without mentioning the word “American” it is possible to categorize “people those live in America” into various racial, religious, tribal, and ethnic groups. In the America the concept of “denationalization” or “cosmopolitan identity” are more meaningful than the statement “American national identity”.
The Huntington's thesis is that the core of American national identity is Anglo-protestant culture and political Creed of liberty and democracy which traced from peoples of the colonies and states in the last half of eighteen century. He argues that in the last years of 20th century some struggles weakened American identity; the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the ideology of multiculturalism, the wave of immigration from Latin America and Asia, and the Spanish-speaking immigrants.
He focuses on “immigration” and “American creed” as two key elements of American national identity and the important distinction between "settlers" and "immigrants". America is a nation of immigrants and political principles unify the diverse ethnicities produced by immigration. Thus these elements create partial identities.
“Racist nation” is another concept that is said to United States. Americans, historically, distinguished themselves from Indians, Blacks, Asians, and Mexicans. The root of this assumption is that, the founding fathers believed that the survival of republican government depended on high levels of racial, religious, and ethnic homogeneity. Because of this racial division, Anglo-Americans remained the dominant group. While the Anglo-Americans did not remain pure and joined by Irish, Italian, German, Jewish , and other Americans, the Anglo- protestant culture survived as a the paramount defining element of American identity. Protestant was shaper of American unique nation in seventeen, eighteen century and during nineteen century. One of the impacts of this protestant culture was individualism. On the other hand, because protestant was the religion of work, working became the principle of status. In the 1990s Americans remained people of work and identified themselves with their work more than others. Individually Americans should achieve to the results of hardworking and collectively they should create their unique promised land.
The surprising factoid is that descendants of the original settler peoples remained a majority of the population of the US until the middle of the twentieth century. It is not until a massive wave of new immigration began in the 1960s, that the original Anglo-Protestant stock became a minority over the subsequent 40 years. Americans repudiated their Anglo inheritance with the separation of church and state and their rejection of the class-based hierarchies. The result was a radically new nation based on a Universalist conception and open to anyone including millions of non-Anglo immigrants. While Americans defined their identity in opposition to Catholicism, newcomers changed America from a protestant country into a Christian country with protestant values. Therefore, the balance between Protestants and Catholics shifted over the years, but in overall, Americans identified themselves as Christians. Noticeably civil religion enables Americans to bring together their secular politics and their religious society.
As history demonstrates in the last years of twentieth century, there was nothing fixed about nations and nation-states. American nation became fragile. The Twentieth century was the century in which national identity dominated other identities and in which Americans were nationalist and patriotic began to fade in 1960s. In the later decades of the twentieth century cultural and political fragmentation has increased. It had some principal manifestations; 1) the popularity of multiculturalism and diversity and acceptance of racial, ethnic, gender, and other sub national identities instead of national identity. 2) Independents identity of immigrants. 3) Hispanization and the transformation of American into a bilingual, bicultural society.

If it is said that old American identity was faded and a new one is creating, it should be said four trends are shaping this new American identity. 1) The disappearance of ethnicity as a source of identity for white Americans 2) fading salience of racial identities 3) More influence of Hispanic community and trend toward a bilingual and bicultural Americas.
The results of all these changes were melting pots including Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish on one hand, English, Norwegian, Italian, Irish, German, and Russian on the other hand. Also, racism as a social and political construction was considered. Racial identities, in the twenty first century, are evolving in some ways; differences in socioeconomic status, individual multiracialism, weakening the importance of race rather than other elements of personal identity. In sum, at present, race still matters but it matters less in many parts of national life, except for those who found declining salience as a threat to the place of whites in America. Declining salience has created “white nativism” which has found it (Declining salience) a threat to white culture, language, and power.
September 11 was a turning point that changed the concept of American identity in 21 century. It was the beginning of a new era in which people define themselves in terms of culture and religion. Americans found Islam and Chinese nationalism as their enemies. In that condition religion became the most prominent element of their identity.
Now, some years after September 11, United States experiences the process of renewing the trends dominating pre-September 11. America as an open society welcomes the world and encourages racial, ethnic, and cultural identities. It is multiethnic, multicultural, and multiracial. On the other hand America is the superpower in the whole world in the 21 century. Cosmopolitanism an imperialism attempt to reduce social, political, and cultural differences between America and other societies, in spite of the fact, Anglo-protestant culture and religiosity identifies Americans.

"From wealth to power" by Fareed Zakaria (1998)

"From wealth to power" by Fareed Zakaria (1998)

Between 1870s and 1890s by growing power of federal government and presidency American political structure changed dramatically. In the 19th century when decision making became more centralized and unified and the government gained national resources, American foreign policy changed.
While, after the new deal and World War II, American state grew and the foreign policy became more active still foreign policy of Europe was more powerful.

In the American states, congress exercised its constitutionally powers and created division between international structural pressure and national policy. During the late 19th century, because of industrialization American states grew more.
When state governments became strong enough to prevent federal government from becoming all-powerful and federal government was divided into three equal branches, the “power of people” became more important. Then it was in the 19th century that the government of shared functions and divided power was created.

After civil war some changes had occurred; creation of nationalism and solidarity were some of these changes but civil war did not result to a fiscal-military state. Something that determined the condition after civil war was the battles between “president and congress”, “racial republicans and democrats” and “the North and the South”. In fact after the war, war-born ideals opposed traditional American beliefs, strong central government opposed limited government and race-blind citizenship opposed racial inequality.
On the other hand, after civil war America became a great industrial society with mass production and distribution. Gradually, business became national and national bureaucracies were founded; the civil service commission, the bureau of labor, the interstate commerce commission, in congress, new committees and subcommittees were established. As society grew, national party organizations were growth and became the most important national political institutions.


Totally In 19th century the American state was not stagnant; industrial activities increased, technologies improved, railroads expanded across the country, economy grew rapidly and with government aid came government regulation. Federal court became the most powerful authority over business and especially railroads. As business became national in scope, the battle between police power of the individual states and the federal government increased.

It was in the late 1870s that the balance between congress and the white house removed. In five areas, congress and white house struggled for power and in all of them, president has succeeded; executive independence in appointments, executive independence in cabinet nominations, congressional attempts to dictate policy and the assertion of the president’s veto power, executive independence in the dismissal of officials , shifting in policy leadership from the legislative to the executive branch.

In the late 19th century, the executive branch and the central government obtained more constitutional power, greater political power and more public legitimacy. Cleary bureaucracies were so important. In that time foreign policy and military bureaucracies were enlarged and revamped. Changes such as reform of diplomatic and consular services were parts of civil service reform movement.
Eventually by 1890s the Foreign Service became larger, more permanent and less corrupt.

Armed forces:
While United States was powerful, technologically, its army was poorly staffed, poorly equipped and poorly managed. it was in the 1880s that the public understood that the united states required more powerful armed force. The main goal was empowering the military organization. Also, a revolution in military education began.
On the other hand the control of coastal fortifications and strategic affairs moved from congressional hand s to professional military and executive branch.
After 1890, the chief executive of the United States had a meaningful foreign policy.
I the 1890s united states with the new" American state" emerged in world stage.

Becoming more powerful:
In the navy's annual report of 1899 Benjamin Tracy proposed battleship fleets for pacific and for Atlantic. It was a turning point in the history of the United States that made America a great naval power. In the next decade, united sates had a growing foreign policy.

In order to understanding the improvement of the united state, we should focus on technological advancement. With changing in agriculture and creation mass production and improvements in transportation, American became more powerful. But its economy still depended on internal market. I was in 1889 and 1913 that manufacturing exports grew and Americans began to open the door to new markets like Latin America and china.
During 1890s, the notion of national expansion affected most of the statesmen whom tried to increase American economic power like Roosevelt, Henry Cabot lodge, John Hay, Henry Adams.

Harrison and Blaine:
During Harrison and Blaine leadership, United State was more involved in external affairs. Harrison succeeded to expending American interests and commitments. During his presidency the executive authority had expanded and also the balance of power had shifted to Washington and thus in the wider world.
After McKinley administration, United States expanded into Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, the Walk Islands, the Philippines, and Samoa.
Under McKinley's leadership, America experienced the most extension of its interests abroad, he expanded presidential power. In any case, the presidents after McKinley ensured that United States had access to control over sea lanes, port facilities, strategic locations and. by McKinley and his successors American expansionism and foreign policy activism remained vigorous.

Theodore Roosevelt:
Roosevelt was an expansionist whom believed that expansionism was necessary and morally praiseworthy. During his presidency the world found the United States a great power. American expansionist focused on Britain, panama, Canada, central and Latin America and Asia.

As a conclusion we can say that the history of the United States was the history of transformation of a country from a revolutionary power to a status quo one. As a bicameral government, United States improved its foreign policy especially in World War I. However it found its expansionists way s and reached to unprecedented level in cold war, And after World War II united stats practiced its control over international environment and used from his power to its own interests and benefits. United States passed all stages to be a great power.

Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic by Chalmers Johnson

Review over Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic by Chalmers Johnson

Johnson in his new book explains the future of America and threats that will result in destruction of American empire. Johnson makes his case citing ancient Rome to show how imperialism and militarism undermined the Republic. The momentous point is that the United States must do to avoid the appointment with Nemesis. But at first, Johnson discusses how America became an imperial tyranny.
He begins with the fact that one of the most important purposes of founders was preventing from recurrence of the tyranny that they had tolerated under Britain’s kingdom. They tried to prevent tyrannies of all powers. In order to this purpose, the congress was given the parliamentary power; it made final decision to go to war and impeachment the president. After a century this form of distribution of power changed and the president became the fundamental power in the government.
In contrast to Americans’ ideal, from the founding of American republic to Eisenhower’s presidency the main concern of the government was war. Since 1941 United States engaged in many wars, as Vidal said between the end of the World War II and September 11, 2001, United States engaged in 201 oversea war and struggle. United States entered in some of these wars by choice such as World War I, Guam, Cuba and … And other wars which were not war of choice such as World War II, Cold War , Korean War , and… .
In modern age we can refer to “desk murderers” whom instructed remote control killing by bombarding of a country that lacks any forms of air defense or by firing of cruise missiles from a warship at sea into countries unable to respond such as Iraq, Sudan or Afghanistan. In fact there is enormous number of desk murderers in American executive branch or in high ranks of their army. The American soldiers are empowered to excessive use of force. For instance, they are authorized to use lethal force whenever they feel threatened.
United States ruled Afghanistan and Iraq through fear, torture and indefinite detention. American killing of people in Iraq was more crucial than in Afghanistan because Iraq was more populous and on the other hand, in order to finding Saddam Hussein, Americans attacked to underground bunkers and used many large bomb and killed lot of Iraqi civilians.
The consequences of this policy in the United States were systematic killing of unarmed civilians in Afghanistan and Iraq and creation of a global network of both known and secret prisons around the world. Americans attacks to elsewhere in purpose to capturing terrorists, creates a world of dread and peril. Unfortunately, United States remains the superpower in the world and has the world’s most powerful military without practical restraint. Particularly, after 11/sep the president authorized torture to show the world that the United States was a new Rome, it was a symbolic value.
Johnson argues about 20th century empires that rose and fell with parallels to present-day America. He refers to Brits, Soviets, Nazis, Japanese, and Ottomans to show the resemblance between them and America. He focuses on Rome Empire which was approaching the edge of a huge waterfall and about to plunge over it.
It seems that it is logical to compare American republic 230 years after the declaration of independence with ancient Rome and British Empire, because Rome and Britain are the "arch-types" defining where America stand and what America face. The point is that Rome made the wrong choice and perished while Britain chose more wisely and survived.
Rome's military success made it very rich and its leaders arrogant leading to what Johnson calls "the first case of what today we call imperial overstretch." It grew large and unwieldy becoming a state within a state like Pentagon today. It created a culture of militarism that turned into a culture of moral decay leading to the empire's decline and fall. In sum “Rome chose empire, lost its Republic and then everything”.
In fact, collapse of the Roman republic proved that imperialism and militarism can undermine the best defenses of a democracy. The experience of Rome –which was in the position of the present day united states- shows that how empire and militarism erode the foundations of a Republic.
Britain went the other way choosing democracy; enthusiast for the American empire makes the history of British Empire as an acceptable model for the United States. There are some similarities between Great Britain and United States, for example they have never been defeated and occupied by a foreign military power.
American democracy and way of life are now threatened because it now faces - an imperial presidency, erosion of checks and balances and separation of powers, and a culture of militarism, and it's now an uncontrollable state within the state. Now late in the game, America must choose one way or the other. United States can keep itself and lose its democracy because successful imperialism requires that a domestic republic change into a tyranny. It can't have both. As Johnson argues, United States must now choose whether to return to its founding roots or stay on its present path heading to imperial tyranny.

Mother Jones, a person who commented significantly on the American experience

MOTHER JONES, a person who commented significantly on the American experience

Mother Jones, the labor organizer who worked for economic justice and who mobilized laborers and working class families by her dynamic speaking skills and racial organizing method, was called “the most dangerous woman in America” by her opponents. Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, a nationally known labor organizer called Jones “the greatest woman agitator”. “The grandmother of all agitators” was the surname that U.S. senate gave her. She was proud of that title and said she hoped to live to be the great grandmother of aggregators. Her pleasant worlds were full of passion, energy, and hope. Her speeches made miners to think and act, no matter what impossible ideas she brought up, she and the miners could do anything.
The time that Mother Jones lived in, was the time in which everyone had to fight to survive. It was not pacific era. It was the epoch of political and social confusions; she felt the meaning of war and violence. She was born 50 years after American revolution, she lived in Jackson‘s presidency. She knew the civil war, the Spanish-American war, and World War I. she saw the process of industrialization and technological improvement. Telephone, electric light, radio, and … were devices she used in her daily life. She road in automobiles, and she saw the railroads link to the oceans. She saw all of the social impacts of these changes in the life of working class. She watched unions grow from secret groups of hunted men to complacent part of the established order.... Yet, she died on the eve of the New Deal.

Biography:
Mary Harris was the daughter of Roman Catholic tenant farmer on north side of Cork city, Ireland. Her birthday was estimated on August 1, 1837 by recent materials, while she later claimed a birthday of May 1, 1830. Biographer suggested that her claim to an earlier data has been an appeal to add imagine of white-haired “Mother” Jones.
The date of May 1st was chosen symbolically, representing the national labor holiday and anniversary of the Haymarket Riot.
In her birthplace, Jones watched British soldiers marched in streets, the heads of Irishmen stuck on their bayonets. her grandfather, an Irish freedom fighter was hanged and Harrises was forced to move United States in 1840, Mary graduated there from school at seventeen and became a teacher, in 1861 she married Gorge E. Jones, a member of iron molders’ union in Memphis. Probably her knowledge about unions and the psychology of workingmen increased from her husband

Her life was pleasing until the big disaster revolted her life. The first turning point in her life was the time that she lost her husband and four children by yellow fever epidemic within one week. She was forced to return to Chicago and began to work as a dressmaker, she opened a seamstress shop, she sewed cloths for wealthy residents of Chicago, Great Fire changed her life drastically again, she lost her property in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. Biographers believe that working for wealthy families made the roots of Jones’s interest in labor movement. As Mara Lou Hawse (2004) cited from Fetherling, Mother Jones said: "Often while sewing for the lords and barons who lived in magnificent houses on the Lake Shore Drive, I would look out of the plate glass windows and see the poor, shivering wretches, jobless and hungry, walking alongside the frozen lake front.... The contrast of their condition with that of the tropical comfort of the people for whom I sewed was painful to me. My employers seemed neither to notice nor to care."

Few years after the Great Fire, she stayed in Chicago and worked as a seamstress. She had no fixed home, but Chicago was her base when she traveled back from industrial areas in the country. As she said she lived wherever which was a fight, she lived with the workers, in tent colonies or in shantytowns, near the mills or in the shadow of the tipples. To support herself, she committed to the labor struggle for human wages and working condition. She joined the Knights of Labor which was a predecessor of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or "Wobblies) that she helped found in 1905. At the time of founding Industrial Workers of the Word, Jones was the only woman among 27 persons who signed the manifesto of the convention to organize all industrial workers.

During the time she was most active in the labor movement, the economic system changed fundamentally. The agrarian economy replaced with industrial economy. The aftermath of this basic change was noticeable. A new condition of work was created, hunger and poverty was the fate of huge number of immigrants and misplaced farmers whom dug the nation’s coal and forged its steel. Jones was the leader of these hopeless workers to defend from their rights.

As a 30 years old woman who had lost her husband and children and became a union organizer, she began to see labor movement as her family. She reconstructed her life; she renewed herself as “mother” Jones. As a real mother she allocated her life to support the workers in railroad, steel, copper, brewing, textile, and mining industries.
As an efficient organizer in strikes she organized the United Mine Workers (UMW) in West Virginia in 1890s.

Jones bustled against social injustice by government. In 1903 she organized children textile workers in ‘children crusade’ to march from Pennsylvania to New York on President Roosevelt’s home. They demonstrated by “we want time to play” and "We want to go to school! The result of their protest was that the issue of child labor settled in the forefront of the public agenda.

After another children's march she convicted with other union organizers of conspiring to commit murder and was arrested, her arrest resulted in huge tumults by her adherents; that is why she was quickly released from prison. From that time United States Senate began to inspection the situation in mills and mines.

During the Paint Creek-Cabin in 1912-13, there was an obstreperous strike in West Virginian response to continual violence. Mother Jones learned children and wives of miners to protest against the violence. She led a march again through West Virginia. As a result of chaotic condition many people were murdered. Mother Jones was convicted by military court to commit murder and she was denounced to 20 years in prison. Her sentence made lots of furor. However, before more violence, Hatfield, the new governor set mother Jones free. A few months later she was arrested again, when she organized the coal miners in Colorado. After her release from prison, she was invited to Standard Oil's headquarters and found the opportunity to meet John D. Rockefeller, their meeting was a commencement for some reforms that Rockefeller did in Colorado mines.
In 1914, 20 women and children were killed in a miners’ tent colony in Ludlow by the Colorado militia massacred. Jones persuaded President Wilson to reprimand the agents of this calamity. As a defender, it was not pleasant for authorities to tolerate mother Jones. They did anything to condemn her; sometimes she was in court for libel, slander, and sedition.

In 1915 and 1916 she associated with strikers of garment workers and streetcar workers in New York, and then participated in strike of steel workers in Pittsburgh in 1919. It was in 1921, when she traveled to Mexico and attended in pan-American federation of labor meeting. Her attendance was the significant point in her role in the labor movement.
In 1925, two thugs attacked Jones’ house, she fought with them and injured one of them seriously, and he later died from the wounds inflicted on him by Jones. It was a good excuse to arrest Jones, Police immediately arrested her, but she was soon released when the attackers were identified as associates of a prominent local business person.

She was hospitalized several times but she continued to protest and speak when her health permitted. One of her last known public activity was in alliance, Ohio, in 1926 when she participated in Labor Day celebration.

Eventually in her 100th (or 93th) birthday party on May 1930, at a reception in Silver Spring she read congratulatory messages and "made a fiery speech for the motion-picture camera." And it was her last public appearance.

Mother Jones died seven months after her birthday, on November 1930. She is buried in union miners’ cemetery in mount olive, Illinois alongside miners who died in the Virden Riot of 1898. She called these miners, killed in strike-related violence, "her boys".
Many movements were inspired by mother Jones after her dead. In 1989-90, in Virginia and Kentucky the wives and daughters of striking coal miners those inspired by mother Jones legendary named themselves “daughters of mother Jones” In November 2007, the original musical “mother Jones and the march of the mill children”, which was based on the mother Jones’ life.
In overall, despite many disastrous events in her life, Mother Jones’s efforts and her fierce determination was expressed on her famous declaration. Her famous expression was "Pray for the dead and fight like hell for the living." And her ideal was “to live long enough to be the great-grandmother of all agitators."

http://www.fembio.org/biographie.php/frau/biographie/mary-harris-mother-jones/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_jones#Biography

http://www.kentlaw.edu/ilhs/majones.htm

Peoples and empires by Anthony Pagden

Review over Peoples and empires by Anthony Pagden
This book is a "Short History," of western empires which explain about shaping European civilization and includes chronology of key events. It starts with Alexander and ends with the European Union and globalization.
Major stopping points along the way include the Byzantine Empire, the Catholic Church as Empire, the Spanish Empire, British Empire, and the European Colonial systems into the 20th Century.
The story of the empires of the peoples of the Europe begins in the ancient Greece.
The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of classical antiquity to Roman conquest which provided foundation of western civilization, and later influenced 18th and 19th century Europe and the America.

The book begins with Alexander, an ancient Greece king.
Alexander life became a tale of the elision of knowledge and understanding with power.
In the middle ages, Alexander became a legendary figure whose desire to subjugate the entire world and eventually he conquered the Persian Empire, including Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Bactrian and Mesopotamia and extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as the borders of Punjab.
In the end, Alexander could not manage both Europe and Asia. As a result, at first Romans and then Christians Latin kingdoms of Europe replaced the Greeks.
By the late sixth century Rome had a republican form of government through a series of civil wars and precise event roman republic had transited to Roman Empire. What today is thought of as the Roman Empire had been acquired under the republic, republics have been able to create empires, they have all, fallen prey to the ambitions of the strongest among them. This is what became of the Greek city-states, and it is what finally became of roman when the empire had grown too big.
And by the first century B.C., most of what had survived of the empire of Alexander had fallen into Roman hands.
Most Romans recognized the Rome the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s-60s.
In the middle years of the century the roman legions had suffered terrible defeats at the hands of Persians and the Goths and other Germanic tribes and civil wars. In the last attempt to keep the empire, the empire had divided into a western and an eastern half by Diocletian- the last emperor of undivided empire. The end of Roman Empire is sometimes when Western Roman Empire was deposed and not replaced
After declaration of Rome Empire there would be two suns shining upon the glob. Two rulers competing for universal supremacy, a Christian emperor in the west and a Muslim sultan in the east.
The European and Asian empires had all been linked to large, well-trained, and highly mobile land forces.
Charles v created a roman and holy empire in the center but, for many years the glob had continued a single landmass divided into three linked continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
In the fifteenth century, however, this vision of the world began to change. After discovery of America and mastery of Atlantic and pacific, Europe became the strongest power in the world.
Charles v established the roman and holy empire in the central European state. Christendom was the most noticeable feature if this roman holy empire.
Christian church was based on layer upon of highly sophisticated interpretations of its founders' words, filtered through Greek philosophy and roman jurisprudence.
A Spanish Dominican priest -Las Casas- for the first time established bishop of Chiapas[1]. As a settler in the new world he was galvanized by witnessing the toture and genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists. He became a symbol of the fight against the injustices of colonialism," the friend of humanity".
Albeit he never doubted the superiority of European civilization, never doubted that without Christ the inhabitants of Americas doomed to eternal damnation and he never doubted that was only whit the coming of Columbus that peoples that had lain in oblivion during centuries, had entered history.
Casas's reading of history legitimated the Spanish occupation of the America in the name of church and ultimately made the Europeans the paternal instructors of all those who later come to be called the "backward" race of the world.
Las Casas's protested against the cruelty of the Spanish settlers had been made not only when Spain was the most powerful sate in the Europe , but when its ruler, Charles v, could claim to be the heir to Augustus , the bringer of order and peace to the entire world. But, the decline of Spain had begun by the mid-sixteenth century when a long war ensued and gradually drew in most of the states of Europe, squandered massive resources and millions of lives, and spread across half of the world. The war and its consequences caused Spain lost all its remaining Europe possessions, and the empire was reduced, in effect, to the Americans and the Philippines. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Spanish colonists began to resent the autocratic presence of a remote and declining European power. Finally, in 1898, the United States occupied and liberated the Philippines and drove the Spanish out of Cuba and Puerto Rico.

Slavery:
Slaves came from all over Greek and Raman worlds, in the Roman Empire and medieval Europe slaves act as domestic servants, but modern slavery changed its ancient and medieval predecessors which began when Africans were taken from Senegal, the European demand for slaves effectively transformed what had been a local commercial practice into the greatest forced migration in human history, modern slavery was a massive transatlantic trade. Africans went to America; they had sought completely different from Europeans. By the time first the British, then the French and Spanish found that somewhere in the world existed where provided all mankind required.
After independence revolution of the united state and British loose its colonists and empire, the fight against slavery began.
Also, slavery impact on the modern relationship between the developed and the developing worlds.
By the middle age of the 18th century every territory in the earth had been charted or colonized by Europeans.
Eventually protests against slavery and colonization began and increased.

American foreign policy

In the last decade of 20th century Great Britain was at the center of the global empire and financial system. The Britain which entered into 20th century as a lion became a weak lamb. During the revolution British troops occupied many major cities in American colonies; the United States had no power to resist against the European powers. But American people did not allow the government to look weak in foreign policies.
After revolution continental congress was not able to manage foreign relations under the article of confederation, and supporters of new constitution notice to power of the national government to have effective foreign policy.
In the last years of 19th century and early in the 20th century American politics changed by series of foreign policy debates. No European power did better than United States in the 20th century, all of them played much worse. Americans be aware of relationships between domestic prosperity and international economy. Even in the 19th century foreign policy was at the hearth of American politic. There were four important issues in American politics during he 19th century; slavery, westward expansion, the tariffs and monetary policy. All of these are recognized as foreign policy even the issue of slavery.
American government in 19th century played important role to opening the doors of American and African trades. The United States played admirable role in the international relations.
Politics elites notice to American foreign policy during the isolationist period, even. During American isolation us navy was active in every ocean.
After civil wars America became world power while established hegemony in the western hemisphere. United States had undeniable role in shaping the peace, the monarchical power of Europe vanished after war while it was great thrones previously.
World War I made the United States the world's greatest financial power defeated Germany economically and weakened Britain and France. The result of the war indicated that any country in the world could overcome the great power of United States.
The result of the world war II was the same, the united states enter the war later than other powers , lost less blood and realized greater gains.
The American language, culture, products diffused in the world, its dollar became international means of business and its popular culture dominated the media and market around the world. Foreign investment played noticeable role in American prosperity.
The United States became central power in a worldwide system of finance, communications, and trade.
The criticism of American policy are so various and vociferous.
When we examine the content of criticism against American foreign policy we find a series of contradictory themes: that American foreign policy is naive, too calculating, too openhanded, too violent, too isolationist, too universality, too unilateral, too multilateral, too moralistic, and too immoral.
At the time of the American Revolution, there was some thing like an intellectuals run the government which brought active and successful foreign policy, it was aristocracy. Aristocrats had the leisure to travel abroad and to study the history and languages required for diplomacy. They took long view of their country's interests, they were prepared to undertake policies whose benefits might not mature for many years but it changed gradually;
Here we focus on Continental realism as an approach to foreign policy;
Realism believes that countries are controlled by interests and quest for power in international relations rather than ideals and humanity and charity. Continental realists believe in "auteur" theory of foreign policy. Continental realists believe that the best foreign policy is the product of a single great master: a Bismarck, a Talleyrand, a Metternich, or a Kissinger. But, American political system did not created a smooth path for such characters and American foreign policy is not the product of a single mastermind. The senate provides its votes from all of the fifty states. The procedure of the senate ensures that regional views of the national interest will be represented in the process. Clearly the full regional diversity of the United States will be reflected in the conduct of its foreign policy. Voting patterns founded on these regional realities have often shaped American foreign policy in the past. The United States have always included many regions with different views and priorities in foreign policy. It has idealistic and populist voices in its foreign policy
Also continental realism refers to democratic nature of American policy.
Foreign policy was shaped by democratic values, interests, through both the 19th and 20th century. From the opinion of observes it is not a good thing both in foreign and domestic policy. Few people believe in the ability of democracies to conduct their foreign affairs in the moderate, firm, constructive and farsighted fashion.
Democratic theory believes that people can give wise judgments about domestic politics because each person is most capable of determining which candidates or measure best serves his or her interest but it is much less clear that citizens are informed about the vital issues in foreign policy.
In any case American foreign policy remained on a balance of constracting and competing voices and values, while, from 1949 to 1989 the United States was consumed by controversy over foreign policy, the time that the fundamental elements of foreign policy came into question.
Now the policy of United States is containment, it built NATO, it built a system of international trade it administrates the international system whit no serious war.
In fact, the position of the United States in world politics has changed from generation to generation and even decade to decade, interestingly, United States had no foreign policy before isolation and it was not prepared to face the world into which it emerged in twentieth century.
In the wartime, the fascism and Japanese ideologies which had been the cause of war, crushed and world’s free people including Russians, Chinese, the British and the French were in control and American foreign policy which apparently was fade, led to myth of cold war.
Some basic elements led to rise of continental realism in the United States during cold war. At first, United States did not face serious economic competition during the cold war because of its financial independence. Also, the federal government became larger, more powerful and more secretive and gradually imperial presidency was created. Social and cultural factors also pushed the United States toward continental realism.

o In the twenty-first century, American foreign policy focused on other issues which were less important during cold war. These issues were economics, international order building or globalization, and the relationship of democracy and foreign policy.
New paradigm for American foreign policy depends on three basic ideas. The first is that American economy has been in the core of international economic system. The second idea is that American foreign policy has been determined by nation interest in international trading and financial order. The third one is the importance of democracy in American success. On the other hand there is a link between American foreign policy and domestic policy. Both of them try to prepare free, prosperous and peaceful world for Americans.

Schools of American foreign policy:
There are four approaches in American foreign policy which have evolved in response to changes in the international order and in American society. The first school is “Hamiltonians” which believes that providing American interest is the most important duty of government.
“Wilsonian” is the second school. It believes that United States has both moral and practical duty to spread its values through the world. It emphasizes on legal and moral aspects of world order than on economic agenda.
The third one believes that American democracy is in danger and American independence should be defended. The sources of this approach are john Quincy Adams and George Kennan. The final school is named for Andrew Jackson. He represents a populist and popular culture of honor, independence, courage, and military pride among the American people.
Mostly, in American foreign policy Hamiltonians and Wilsonian were conquering approaches.


Walter Ruseell mead, (2000), Special providence American foreign policy and how it changed the world.

“Social stratification in United States”

Social stratification:
When we speak of social stratification we mean inequality between various groups of people. Inequality exists in all sorts of societies and cultures. Societies are consisted of layers that are hierarchical.
The four basic stratification systems are: 1) slavery 2) caste 3) estate 4) class.
Stratification systems of slavery, caste and estate have been demolished in modern societies except some tribal societies.
The social class system is mainly a description of how scarce resources (wealth, income, education and occupation) are distributed in society. In other words Class could be explained as an indication of the positions a person may occupy within society, positions which are not equal.Thus, in order to analysis social classes in a society, it is necessary to explain that how these resources are distributed and make social classes.
In spite of the fact that some scholars argue that in developed countries, inequality has reduced rather than previous societies but, social stratification, inequality and class conflict have increasing rate today. In the United States Inequality between rich and poor has increased to the extent that the gap among them is larger than any point in the past 75 years. United States has the largest wealth disparity of any industrialized nation in the world and this disparity is growing larger every year.

In the United States, income is obviously one important scarce resource. Clearly, it is occupation that provides income, and it is education that determines the sort of occupation. At the more extent level, income is related to life consequences, such as the quality and quantity of education, health care, and housing one obtains, and even the how long one lives. So, there is interrelationship between accesses to each of these sources.
As I mentioned, in the United States individual income depends on educational characteristics; in 2005 most people with doctorate and professional degrees were in top 15% of income earners. Those with Bachelor degrees had incomes considerably above the national median and people with college degree had less income.
Also the below chart indicates the link between education and income;

Chart 1-Median personal income by educational attainment (2005)

degree High school H s graduate college Associate degree Bachelor degree Master's degree Professionaldegree earning $20,321 $26,505 $31,054 $35,009 $49,303 $52,390 $82,473


The noticeable point is that, while the population of the United States is becoming increasingly educated on all levels, the conspicuous link between income and educational attainment remains.
Another point is that tertiary education is rarely free; education in elite private colleges for a four year program costs $120,000 approximately. While public colleges and universities costs much less but they are not free. Scholarships and low interest loans by government and universities are available too, but still the cost of education is high for many people.
Overall, educational attainment serves as one of the most essential class feature of most Americans, which is directly linked to income and occupation.

On one hand occupational status is consequence of educational attainment, personal or family income and on the other hand it defines access to other resources including income and health.
Low-wage jobs are associated with those people who have less education. Workers in these areas are unskilled because it does not require education in order to perform these jobs. But, White collar jobs require more human capital, skill and knowledge and therefore produce higher earnings. With higher education it is more likely for one to occupy a professional-level job wherein he or she may earn a higher salary. Therefore, those with less education are more likely to be working in Low-wage jobs.
Each particular job influences on lifestyle; income and prestige that gained from a job determine living environment, the kind of foods, medical care, sort of social networks, entertainment, spare times, and behavior.
It is education that makes upper-middle, middle and lower-middle scores on occupational spectrum; unskilled employees, employees with less than seven years of schooling, high school graduated ones, college graduate, licentiate, MS holders, professionals and experts with Doctorate degree located on different scores of occupational spectrum. So while all functions and positions in society do not determine with occupation, the job role is one of the most important status features in the United States.
Another feature that determines individuals’ position in the society is wealth. Wealth is what people own in assets such as houses, cars, stocks, shares, saved money, and lands.
While United States is the second rich county in the world, the distribution of wealth is too unfair. The top 1% of all population owned 38% of the wealth, 10% of population had 71% of wealth and on the other hand the bottom 40% owned less than 1% of the nation's wealth.
Totally, the distribution of wealth is much more unequal than the distribution of income (what people receive in the course of a year by working).

According to these basic elements (income, wealth, occupation and education) which determine the social class of individuals and households, Americans believe in three- class model that includes the rich, the middle class and the poor, while, in reality American society is more diverse, economically and sociologically. It means that there is no clear class distinction between socio-economic strata.

Social mobility:
The most important concept in a class system of stratification is social mobility. In class system, social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement; personal merit becomes more important. In fact, Industrial societies move towards meritocracy and in this kind of societies status consistency is lower than in other sorts of societies. Since societies became more competitive and more meritocratic some elements such as energy, social skills, character, ambition, physical attractiveness, talent, and luck played great role in social mobility and changing social position.
Now the question is that “How much mobility Americans have experienced during their life?”
Social mobility refers to changes in social position which occur during a person’s lifetime. There are two ways to study social mobility; Intragenerational Mobility and Intergenerational mobility.
By the first concept, we mean upward and downward movement in social ladder and by second one we refer to upward and downward movement in social hierarchy compared with the previous generation.
In order to explaining occupational mobility, mostly, scholars focus on father-child or household head–child occupational persistence (Intergenerational mobility).
If we distinguished six general occupational categories including upper professional or manager, lower professional or clerical, self-employed, technical or skilled trade, farm, unskilled and service workers, in united states, among men whom born after 1950, 32 percent of men were immobile (their occupation was in the same category as their father's), 37 percent were upwardly mobile, and 32 percent were downwardly mobile. About women, data show that 27 percent were immobile, 46 percent were upwardly mobile, and 28 percent were downwardly mobile. Then, in occupation upward mobility was more common than downward mobility and Comparisons with other industrialized countries occupational mobility in the United States is reasonably high.
According to studies, intergenerational elasticity (IGE) in income between fathers and sons was estimated 0.4 or higher. Totally, actual association between parents' and children's incomes is high.
Wealth mobility is totally different from occupational and income mobility; at first, wealth is important because its distribution is more unequal than the distribution of income and on the other hand it effects on other aspects of family well-being, especially homeownership and investment in children's education. Also, there is substantial intergenerational persistence in family wealth and the correlation is in the neighborhood of 0.50. The disparity in wealth persists between the generations. Thus, people who have no wealth loose opportunities. As an example, inherited wealth can put families in better neighborhoods and school districts than they could afford if they had to rely just on their incomes.

Social class in the United States is affected by individual achievement, as I said, Occupation, educational attainment and income can be earned and increased through a lifetime, but still it is undeniable that the rich have more money, more education, better occupation, better health, and consume more.
As a conclusion we should say that without the concept of social stratification, it is impossible to understand people’s behavior, because social class determines all aspects of our life…., our happiness, our religious beliefs, our customs, our interests and hobbies our health and even how long we will live and totally our life style.

http://www.urban.org/
http://www.futureofchildren.org/
http://www.wikipedia.com/

What is American studies?

American studies is an interdisciplinary study composed of the many disciplines, all of which try to describe the culture of United States. The multi-disciplinary perspectives on culture of United States accompanies the other major aspects of American society such as its politics, economy, history and also more specific fields on these matters like arts, government, literature, communications, education, religion and etc…. American studies provides a program in which music, literature, media, etc…. are studied in cultural and historical background. On the other hand foreign and public policy, foreign and public culture, educational system and …. are studied from the point of economy, politics, culture and history.
On the other hand, each of ethnic groups and minorities such as women, African Americans, Jews, Moslems and homosexuals are noticeable parts of American studies from the point of economy, politics, culture and history.
Some thing that is conspicuous in all of these fields is Americanism. It means that in all of this studies exceptional characteristic of American culture makes it totally different from situation of all other countries in the world. American studies is study of power and diversity. American studies is the analyses of the super power which is controlling the whole world. It is study of the multi cultural society which includes various cultures and subcultures and at the same time has created a unique and distinctive culture.
United States is running the economical system of the world; it owns all political power and controls the world according to its own policies. despite the fact that the history of the united states is not too long but it is the history of war and force, it is the history of creation of super power in an approximately short time.
in order to understanding the world, recognition of united states as super power is necessary.

Female prisoners' rights
United States has criticized for having huge number of prisoners and increasing number of female prisoners; in 2004 United States had highest percentage of prisoners in the world. There were more than 2.2 million in prisons or jails, or 737 per 100,000 population, or roughly 1 out of every 136 Americans.
Human Rights Watch complains about this huge population of prisoners, it believes that this rate of incarceration damages individuals, families, communities and strength of the nation. In any case the issue that I am going to focus here is not the high rate of prisoners but, it is their rights and their condition in prison. Federal and state laws established rights of prisoners as well as other humans. Although they do not have full constitutional rights but, the constitution protects them from cruel and unusual punishment. They are protected against unequal treatment on the basis of race, sex, and creed. In fact, prisoners' right is one of noticeable part of human rights which is expected to be provided based upon the constitution of United States as the first defender of human rights. But, the government of United States does not concentrate to execution of human rights in prison. According to senior counsel of the US Program at Human Rights Watch in condition that approximately one in 20 prisoners being raped or sexually abused, it is clear that prison authorities do not take enough action to prisoners' rights.
Certainly prison rape is not inevitable but, Human Rights Watch concerns on prisoners' rape in United States because the rate of reported Sexual abuse and rape in United States prisons are unusual and extraordinary.
There are 148,000 women in state and federal prisons. Female inmates are victim of rape, sexual extortion by prison officials. Correctional officials retaliate against women who complain about sexual assault and harassment, and they threat women’s children and visitation rights as a means of silencing the women. Sometimes segregation or long staying in jail is the punishment of those who speak anything about sexual abuse.
Also, sexual abuse has occurred by inmates. In this cases officials do not attention to provide prisoners security, they do not answer to complaints of unwanted sexual activity. Mostly, they condoned inmate-on-inmate abuse. Totally, being a female prisoner in united stares is an awful experience. Women are sexually abused, they are suffered by officials or other inmates, complaints are not effective, officials are not accountable for their crime because they have more power than prisoners. Some times guilty officials are just sent to other places to work, not have been punished. All these show that the authorities fail to manage effective policy on sexual abuse.
Noticeably, one of the most important elements in sexual misconduct in United States prisons for women is that the government permits male to be employees and guards in women prisons. In this position, prisoners who are condemned for breaking others' rights, loose their primary rights, they loose their physical security. Sexual abuse threats women lives it devastates human spirit. It leads to depression, and shattering loss of self-esteem.
Under both international and national law prisons are required to prohibit torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and to ensure that such abuse is investigated and punished.

http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/index.php/Prisoners
http://www.spr.org/index.asp
http://www.hrw.org/

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