“Taming American power” by Stephen M. Walt

Stephen M. Walt notices to bilateral position of the United States as mightiest state in the whole world. On one hand its power is a source of pride and opportunity and gives it security and capacity to mold the world according to its interest and values, and on the hand, rest of the world find united states a big trouble and response to this power in the way that might threat the unique position of the united states and disable America to achieve its foreign policy goals and may eventually undermine its dominant position.
At first , the author explain the dominant global position of the united states and the process in which it used its power to mold the world according to its own interests and values since the end of the cold war. After cold war, presidents George H.W. Bush, William Clinton, and George W. Bush made American primacy with the motto of peace, prosperity, and justice. All of them wanted to create liberal –capitalist world order, while they applied different approaches; President George H.W. Bush and President Clinton followed this goal via multilateral institutions which had been created since 1845, but Bush administration found unilateralism more practical than multilateralism. They tried to increase U.S. power and influence to prevent the speared of weapons of mass destruction, to librated the world economy and to promote the core U.S. values of democracy and human rights.
United States is the only great power in modern history; it has the largest economy ( after world war II its share of global production is 50 percent, it is also more divers and self-sufficient than other economic powers) , overwhelming military supremacy (the U.S. defense expenditures is seven times larger than that of the china which is the number-two power) , institutional influence (U.S. plays a unique role in the most important global organizations such as WTO, IMF and world bank), dominant cultural and ideological impact (U.S. has a great soft power to shape preferences of others through the inherent attractiveness of U.S. culture, ideology , and institution) and even a favorable geopolitical position Clearly, with these positions, U.S. is the first in the order, importance, and authority.
Desire of primacy was the momentous goal of United States that it was trying for, before the cold war. In fact, collapse of the Soviet Union was the intended result of four decades of U.S. effort. Since then U.S. began to promote a favorable imbalance of power; for example it claimed that United States should maintain military capabilities large enough to discourage potential rivals from trying to compete. It prevented from spread of weapon particularly nuclear weapons while it remains the strongest conventional forces. Another example is that United States leaders always claimed to uphold democratic values and to promote United States ideals of democracy and human rights, while, after the end of the cold war, democracy and human rights became an invisible issue on the united sates foreign policy agenda.
Primacy does not protect U.S. from all dangers because it creates fear and resentment around the world. From a realist point of view, American position in the world alarms and angers others and U.S. will face suspicion and resentment, because other states are sensitive to the balance of power and when one state becomes stronger than the others they get uncomfortable, they find the super-power as a potential threat to the rest. According to constructivism, primacy is a danger for U.S. because other states respond to the physical power that the United States possesses, and to the policies it pursues and even to the ways US power is described an understood.
The fact is that the U.S. has abused its power and harmed other states which were not evil. “Conflicts of interests” is another thing that frightens other states, because each country has its own condition, history, resources, geographic location and…. Thus the interests of various states with various conditions may lead to conflicts of interests and as a result the most powerful state ignores or damages other states interests in the interest of itself. On the other hand it is not certain that how the United States will behave in future, maybe it will not remain benevolent and maybe it will become aggressive in the future. An other reason that causes countries feel uncomfortable is that even if United States does not want to use from its power against other states, its policies damage them because foreign policy has unintended consequences, mightier states have more freedom to action and more damage others even if they do not mean to do it. Therefore, due to these explanations, many countries are increasingly uncomfortable with United States primacy. Some others are opposed America, they created the concept of anti-Americanism. They found America as an evil which has immoral culture and society and suffers from various sorts of social ills..
History shows that United States damaged many states dramatically. North Korea and People’s Republic of china have experienced a long period of American hostility. U.S., also, waged war against Germany and Japan in World War II, killed huge number of people in each society, dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. United States intervened in Cuba, Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and elsewhere in order to protect its business interests. Anti-Americanism is the result of both previous and current global position which has created by United States policies.

But yet there are few countries seem willing to contort the United States directly. Their pro-Americanism arises from the fear that American culture is too attractive, they claim that U.S. political system is based on a set of universal principals of individual rights and human liberty.

Stephen M. Walt also, noticed that United States primacy does not prevent weaker states from challenging its power, provided that they can do so without threatening core U.S. interests .it means that states those want to do something against United States would seek to windows of opportunity because attacking U.S. directly led to an inevitable forceful U.S. response- the same thing that happened to al Qaeda after September 11-.
He considers to various strategies that states may employ to oppose United States primacy; states may response to super power by balancing power against the dominant states. Traditional balance-of-power theory argues that the material capabilities including population, economic wealth, military power, and natural resources should be distributed among states. In any case the countries that want to balance the distribution of power are trying to improve their position vis-à-vis the United States. Balancing can be done by mobilizing internal resources or by allying with others; “Soft balancing” (with others), “hard balancing” (on their own), “internal balancing” (through various asymmetric strategies) are the ways of balancing. Balking is another strategy that states can employ, in this strategy they ignore U.S. request. By binding they try to constrain US behavior within an overarching set of international institutions. Blackmail also can be an effective strategy in which blackmaker should harm U.S. interests or convince U.S leader.

After all it should be said United States still remains the dominant world power, but it must change its foreign policy and welcomes the benevolent use of its power to obtain more legitimacy.

review on "Who are we?" by Samuel Huntington, 2004

review on "Who are we? " by Samuel Huntington, 2004

In “WHO ARE WE?” Huntington has argued about some critical questions facing American national identity. Huntington argues about some elements which are threats for American consciousness; globalization, cosmopolitanism, immigration, sub nationalism, and anti-nationalism. Because of all these elements and without mentioning the word “American” it is possible to categorize “people those live in America” into various racial, religious, tribal, and ethnic groups. In the America the concept of “denationalization” or “cosmopolitan identity” are more meaningful than the statement “American national identity”.
The Huntington's thesis is that the core of American national identity is Anglo-protestant culture and political Creed of liberty and democracy which traced from peoples of the colonies and states in the last half of eighteen century. He argues that in the last years of 20th century some struggles weakened American identity; the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the ideology of multiculturalism, the wave of immigration from Latin America and Asia, and the Spanish-speaking immigrants.
He focuses on “immigration” and “American creed” as two key elements of American national identity and the important distinction between "settlers" and "immigrants". America is a nation of immigrants and political principles unify the diverse ethnicities produced by immigration. Thus these elements create partial identities.
“Racist nation” is another concept that is said to United States. Americans, historically, distinguished themselves from Indians, Blacks, Asians, and Mexicans. The root of this assumption is that, the founding fathers believed that the survival of republican government depended on high levels of racial, religious, and ethnic homogeneity. Because of this racial division, Anglo-Americans remained the dominant group. While the Anglo-Americans did not remain pure and joined by Irish, Italian, German, Jewish , and other Americans, the Anglo- protestant culture survived as a the paramount defining element of American identity. Protestant was shaper of American unique nation in seventeen, eighteen century and during nineteen century. One of the impacts of this protestant culture was individualism. On the other hand, because protestant was the religion of work, working became the principle of status. In the 1990s Americans remained people of work and identified themselves with their work more than others. Individually Americans should achieve to the results of hardworking and collectively they should create their unique promised land.
The surprising factoid is that descendants of the original settler peoples remained a majority of the population of the US until the middle of the twentieth century. It is not until a massive wave of new immigration began in the 1960s, that the original Anglo-Protestant stock became a minority over the subsequent 40 years. Americans repudiated their Anglo inheritance with the separation of church and state and their rejection of the class-based hierarchies. The result was a radically new nation based on a Universalist conception and open to anyone including millions of non-Anglo immigrants. While Americans defined their identity in opposition to Catholicism, newcomers changed America from a protestant country into a Christian country with protestant values. Therefore, the balance between Protestants and Catholics shifted over the years, but in overall, Americans identified themselves as Christians. Noticeably civil religion enables Americans to bring together their secular politics and their religious society.
As history demonstrates in the last years of twentieth century, there was nothing fixed about nations and nation-states. American nation became fragile. The Twentieth century was the century in which national identity dominated other identities and in which Americans were nationalist and patriotic began to fade in 1960s. In the later decades of the twentieth century cultural and political fragmentation has increased. It had some principal manifestations; 1) the popularity of multiculturalism and diversity and acceptance of racial, ethnic, gender, and other sub national identities instead of national identity. 2) Independents identity of immigrants. 3) Hispanization and the transformation of American into a bilingual, bicultural society.

If it is said that old American identity was faded and a new one is creating, it should be said four trends are shaping this new American identity. 1) The disappearance of ethnicity as a source of identity for white Americans 2) fading salience of racial identities 3) More influence of Hispanic community and trend toward a bilingual and bicultural Americas.
The results of all these changes were melting pots including Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish on one hand, English, Norwegian, Italian, Irish, German, and Russian on the other hand. Also, racism as a social and political construction was considered. Racial identities, in the twenty first century, are evolving in some ways; differences in socioeconomic status, individual multiracialism, weakening the importance of race rather than other elements of personal identity. In sum, at present, race still matters but it matters less in many parts of national life, except for those who found declining salience as a threat to the place of whites in America. Declining salience has created “white nativism” which has found it (Declining salience) a threat to white culture, language, and power.
September 11 was a turning point that changed the concept of American identity in 21 century. It was the beginning of a new era in which people define themselves in terms of culture and religion. Americans found Islam and Chinese nationalism as their enemies. In that condition religion became the most prominent element of their identity.
Now, some years after September 11, United States experiences the process of renewing the trends dominating pre-September 11. America as an open society welcomes the world and encourages racial, ethnic, and cultural identities. It is multiethnic, multicultural, and multiracial. On the other hand America is the superpower in the whole world in the 21 century. Cosmopolitanism an imperialism attempt to reduce social, political, and cultural differences between America and other societies, in spite of the fact, Anglo-protestant culture and religiosity identifies Americans.

"From wealth to power" by Fareed Zakaria (1998)

"From wealth to power" by Fareed Zakaria (1998)

Between 1870s and 1890s by growing power of federal government and presidency American political structure changed dramatically. In the 19th century when decision making became more centralized and unified and the government gained national resources, American foreign policy changed.
While, after the new deal and World War II, American state grew and the foreign policy became more active still foreign policy of Europe was more powerful.

In the American states, congress exercised its constitutionally powers and created division between international structural pressure and national policy. During the late 19th century, because of industrialization American states grew more.
When state governments became strong enough to prevent federal government from becoming all-powerful and federal government was divided into three equal branches, the “power of people” became more important. Then it was in the 19th century that the government of shared functions and divided power was created.

After civil war some changes had occurred; creation of nationalism and solidarity were some of these changes but civil war did not result to a fiscal-military state. Something that determined the condition after civil war was the battles between “president and congress”, “racial republicans and democrats” and “the North and the South”. In fact after the war, war-born ideals opposed traditional American beliefs, strong central government opposed limited government and race-blind citizenship opposed racial inequality.
On the other hand, after civil war America became a great industrial society with mass production and distribution. Gradually, business became national and national bureaucracies were founded; the civil service commission, the bureau of labor, the interstate commerce commission, in congress, new committees and subcommittees were established. As society grew, national party organizations were growth and became the most important national political institutions.


Totally In 19th century the American state was not stagnant; industrial activities increased, technologies improved, railroads expanded across the country, economy grew rapidly and with government aid came government regulation. Federal court became the most powerful authority over business and especially railroads. As business became national in scope, the battle between police power of the individual states and the federal government increased.

It was in the late 1870s that the balance between congress and the white house removed. In five areas, congress and white house struggled for power and in all of them, president has succeeded; executive independence in appointments, executive independence in cabinet nominations, congressional attempts to dictate policy and the assertion of the president’s veto power, executive independence in the dismissal of officials , shifting in policy leadership from the legislative to the executive branch.

In the late 19th century, the executive branch and the central government obtained more constitutional power, greater political power and more public legitimacy. Cleary bureaucracies were so important. In that time foreign policy and military bureaucracies were enlarged and revamped. Changes such as reform of diplomatic and consular services were parts of civil service reform movement.
Eventually by 1890s the Foreign Service became larger, more permanent and less corrupt.

Armed forces:
While United States was powerful, technologically, its army was poorly staffed, poorly equipped and poorly managed. it was in the 1880s that the public understood that the united states required more powerful armed force. The main goal was empowering the military organization. Also, a revolution in military education began.
On the other hand the control of coastal fortifications and strategic affairs moved from congressional hand s to professional military and executive branch.
After 1890, the chief executive of the United States had a meaningful foreign policy.
I the 1890s united states with the new" American state" emerged in world stage.

Becoming more powerful:
In the navy's annual report of 1899 Benjamin Tracy proposed battleship fleets for pacific and for Atlantic. It was a turning point in the history of the United States that made America a great naval power. In the next decade, united sates had a growing foreign policy.

In order to understanding the improvement of the united state, we should focus on technological advancement. With changing in agriculture and creation mass production and improvements in transportation, American became more powerful. But its economy still depended on internal market. I was in 1889 and 1913 that manufacturing exports grew and Americans began to open the door to new markets like Latin America and china.
During 1890s, the notion of national expansion affected most of the statesmen whom tried to increase American economic power like Roosevelt, Henry Cabot lodge, John Hay, Henry Adams.

Harrison and Blaine:
During Harrison and Blaine leadership, United State was more involved in external affairs. Harrison succeeded to expending American interests and commitments. During his presidency the executive authority had expanded and also the balance of power had shifted to Washington and thus in the wider world.
After McKinley administration, United States expanded into Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, the Walk Islands, the Philippines, and Samoa.
Under McKinley's leadership, America experienced the most extension of its interests abroad, he expanded presidential power. In any case, the presidents after McKinley ensured that United States had access to control over sea lanes, port facilities, strategic locations and. by McKinley and his successors American expansionism and foreign policy activism remained vigorous.

Theodore Roosevelt:
Roosevelt was an expansionist whom believed that expansionism was necessary and morally praiseworthy. During his presidency the world found the United States a great power. American expansionist focused on Britain, panama, Canada, central and Latin America and Asia.

As a conclusion we can say that the history of the United States was the history of transformation of a country from a revolutionary power to a status quo one. As a bicameral government, United States improved its foreign policy especially in World War I. However it found its expansionists way s and reached to unprecedented level in cold war, And after World War II united stats practiced its control over international environment and used from his power to its own interests and benefits. United States passed all stages to be a great power.

Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic by Chalmers Johnson

Review over Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic by Chalmers Johnson

Johnson in his new book explains the future of America and threats that will result in destruction of American empire. Johnson makes his case citing ancient Rome to show how imperialism and militarism undermined the Republic. The momentous point is that the United States must do to avoid the appointment with Nemesis. But at first, Johnson discusses how America became an imperial tyranny.
He begins with the fact that one of the most important purposes of founders was preventing from recurrence of the tyranny that they had tolerated under Britain’s kingdom. They tried to prevent tyrannies of all powers. In order to this purpose, the congress was given the parliamentary power; it made final decision to go to war and impeachment the president. After a century this form of distribution of power changed and the president became the fundamental power in the government.
In contrast to Americans’ ideal, from the founding of American republic to Eisenhower’s presidency the main concern of the government was war. Since 1941 United States engaged in many wars, as Vidal said between the end of the World War II and September 11, 2001, United States engaged in 201 oversea war and struggle. United States entered in some of these wars by choice such as World War I, Guam, Cuba and … And other wars which were not war of choice such as World War II, Cold War , Korean War , and… .
In modern age we can refer to “desk murderers” whom instructed remote control killing by bombarding of a country that lacks any forms of air defense or by firing of cruise missiles from a warship at sea into countries unable to respond such as Iraq, Sudan or Afghanistan. In fact there is enormous number of desk murderers in American executive branch or in high ranks of their army. The American soldiers are empowered to excessive use of force. For instance, they are authorized to use lethal force whenever they feel threatened.
United States ruled Afghanistan and Iraq through fear, torture and indefinite detention. American killing of people in Iraq was more crucial than in Afghanistan because Iraq was more populous and on the other hand, in order to finding Saddam Hussein, Americans attacked to underground bunkers and used many large bomb and killed lot of Iraqi civilians.
The consequences of this policy in the United States were systematic killing of unarmed civilians in Afghanistan and Iraq and creation of a global network of both known and secret prisons around the world. Americans attacks to elsewhere in purpose to capturing terrorists, creates a world of dread and peril. Unfortunately, United States remains the superpower in the world and has the world’s most powerful military without practical restraint. Particularly, after 11/sep the president authorized torture to show the world that the United States was a new Rome, it was a symbolic value.
Johnson argues about 20th century empires that rose and fell with parallels to present-day America. He refers to Brits, Soviets, Nazis, Japanese, and Ottomans to show the resemblance between them and America. He focuses on Rome Empire which was approaching the edge of a huge waterfall and about to plunge over it.
It seems that it is logical to compare American republic 230 years after the declaration of independence with ancient Rome and British Empire, because Rome and Britain are the "arch-types" defining where America stand and what America face. The point is that Rome made the wrong choice and perished while Britain chose more wisely and survived.
Rome's military success made it very rich and its leaders arrogant leading to what Johnson calls "the first case of what today we call imperial overstretch." It grew large and unwieldy becoming a state within a state like Pentagon today. It created a culture of militarism that turned into a culture of moral decay leading to the empire's decline and fall. In sum “Rome chose empire, lost its Republic and then everything”.
In fact, collapse of the Roman republic proved that imperialism and militarism can undermine the best defenses of a democracy. The experience of Rome –which was in the position of the present day united states- shows that how empire and militarism erode the foundations of a Republic.
Britain went the other way choosing democracy; enthusiast for the American empire makes the history of British Empire as an acceptable model for the United States. There are some similarities between Great Britain and United States, for example they have never been defeated and occupied by a foreign military power.
American democracy and way of life are now threatened because it now faces - an imperial presidency, erosion of checks and balances and separation of powers, and a culture of militarism, and it's now an uncontrollable state within the state. Now late in the game, America must choose one way or the other. United States can keep itself and lose its democracy because successful imperialism requires that a domestic republic change into a tyranny. It can't have both. As Johnson argues, United States must now choose whether to return to its founding roots or stay on its present path heading to imperial tyranny.