Peoples and empires by Anthony Pagden

Review over Peoples and empires by Anthony Pagden
This book is a "Short History," of western empires which explain about shaping European civilization and includes chronology of key events. It starts with Alexander and ends with the European Union and globalization.
Major stopping points along the way include the Byzantine Empire, the Catholic Church as Empire, the Spanish Empire, British Empire, and the European Colonial systems into the 20th Century.
The story of the empires of the peoples of the Europe begins in the ancient Greece.
The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of classical antiquity to Roman conquest which provided foundation of western civilization, and later influenced 18th and 19th century Europe and the America.

The book begins with Alexander, an ancient Greece king.
Alexander life became a tale of the elision of knowledge and understanding with power.
In the middle ages, Alexander became a legendary figure whose desire to subjugate the entire world and eventually he conquered the Persian Empire, including Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Bactrian and Mesopotamia and extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as the borders of Punjab.
In the end, Alexander could not manage both Europe and Asia. As a result, at first Romans and then Christians Latin kingdoms of Europe replaced the Greeks.
By the late sixth century Rome had a republican form of government through a series of civil wars and precise event roman republic had transited to Roman Empire. What today is thought of as the Roman Empire had been acquired under the republic, republics have been able to create empires, they have all, fallen prey to the ambitions of the strongest among them. This is what became of the Greek city-states, and it is what finally became of roman when the empire had grown too big.
And by the first century B.C., most of what had survived of the empire of Alexander had fallen into Roman hands.
Most Romans recognized the Rome the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s-60s.
In the middle years of the century the roman legions had suffered terrible defeats at the hands of Persians and the Goths and other Germanic tribes and civil wars. In the last attempt to keep the empire, the empire had divided into a western and an eastern half by Diocletian- the last emperor of undivided empire. The end of Roman Empire is sometimes when Western Roman Empire was deposed and not replaced
After declaration of Rome Empire there would be two suns shining upon the glob. Two rulers competing for universal supremacy, a Christian emperor in the west and a Muslim sultan in the east.
The European and Asian empires had all been linked to large, well-trained, and highly mobile land forces.
Charles v created a roman and holy empire in the center but, for many years the glob had continued a single landmass divided into three linked continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
In the fifteenth century, however, this vision of the world began to change. After discovery of America and mastery of Atlantic and pacific, Europe became the strongest power in the world.
Charles v established the roman and holy empire in the central European state. Christendom was the most noticeable feature if this roman holy empire.
Christian church was based on layer upon of highly sophisticated interpretations of its founders' words, filtered through Greek philosophy and roman jurisprudence.
A Spanish Dominican priest -Las Casas- for the first time established bishop of Chiapas[1]. As a settler in the new world he was galvanized by witnessing the toture and genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists. He became a symbol of the fight against the injustices of colonialism," the friend of humanity".
Albeit he never doubted the superiority of European civilization, never doubted that without Christ the inhabitants of Americas doomed to eternal damnation and he never doubted that was only whit the coming of Columbus that peoples that had lain in oblivion during centuries, had entered history.
Casas's reading of history legitimated the Spanish occupation of the America in the name of church and ultimately made the Europeans the paternal instructors of all those who later come to be called the "backward" race of the world.
Las Casas's protested against the cruelty of the Spanish settlers had been made not only when Spain was the most powerful sate in the Europe , but when its ruler, Charles v, could claim to be the heir to Augustus , the bringer of order and peace to the entire world. But, the decline of Spain had begun by the mid-sixteenth century when a long war ensued and gradually drew in most of the states of Europe, squandered massive resources and millions of lives, and spread across half of the world. The war and its consequences caused Spain lost all its remaining Europe possessions, and the empire was reduced, in effect, to the Americans and the Philippines. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Spanish colonists began to resent the autocratic presence of a remote and declining European power. Finally, in 1898, the United States occupied and liberated the Philippines and drove the Spanish out of Cuba and Puerto Rico.

Slavery:
Slaves came from all over Greek and Raman worlds, in the Roman Empire and medieval Europe slaves act as domestic servants, but modern slavery changed its ancient and medieval predecessors which began when Africans were taken from Senegal, the European demand for slaves effectively transformed what had been a local commercial practice into the greatest forced migration in human history, modern slavery was a massive transatlantic trade. Africans went to America; they had sought completely different from Europeans. By the time first the British, then the French and Spanish found that somewhere in the world existed where provided all mankind required.
After independence revolution of the united state and British loose its colonists and empire, the fight against slavery began.
Also, slavery impact on the modern relationship between the developed and the developing worlds.
By the middle age of the 18th century every territory in the earth had been charted or colonized by Europeans.
Eventually protests against slavery and colonization began and increased.

American foreign policy

In the last decade of 20th century Great Britain was at the center of the global empire and financial system. The Britain which entered into 20th century as a lion became a weak lamb. During the revolution British troops occupied many major cities in American colonies; the United States had no power to resist against the European powers. But American people did not allow the government to look weak in foreign policies.
After revolution continental congress was not able to manage foreign relations under the article of confederation, and supporters of new constitution notice to power of the national government to have effective foreign policy.
In the last years of 19th century and early in the 20th century American politics changed by series of foreign policy debates. No European power did better than United States in the 20th century, all of them played much worse. Americans be aware of relationships between domestic prosperity and international economy. Even in the 19th century foreign policy was at the hearth of American politic. There were four important issues in American politics during he 19th century; slavery, westward expansion, the tariffs and monetary policy. All of these are recognized as foreign policy even the issue of slavery.
American government in 19th century played important role to opening the doors of American and African trades. The United States played admirable role in the international relations.
Politics elites notice to American foreign policy during the isolationist period, even. During American isolation us navy was active in every ocean.
After civil wars America became world power while established hegemony in the western hemisphere. United States had undeniable role in shaping the peace, the monarchical power of Europe vanished after war while it was great thrones previously.
World War I made the United States the world's greatest financial power defeated Germany economically and weakened Britain and France. The result of the war indicated that any country in the world could overcome the great power of United States.
The result of the world war II was the same, the united states enter the war later than other powers , lost less blood and realized greater gains.
The American language, culture, products diffused in the world, its dollar became international means of business and its popular culture dominated the media and market around the world. Foreign investment played noticeable role in American prosperity.
The United States became central power in a worldwide system of finance, communications, and trade.
The criticism of American policy are so various and vociferous.
When we examine the content of criticism against American foreign policy we find a series of contradictory themes: that American foreign policy is naive, too calculating, too openhanded, too violent, too isolationist, too universality, too unilateral, too multilateral, too moralistic, and too immoral.
At the time of the American Revolution, there was some thing like an intellectuals run the government which brought active and successful foreign policy, it was aristocracy. Aristocrats had the leisure to travel abroad and to study the history and languages required for diplomacy. They took long view of their country's interests, they were prepared to undertake policies whose benefits might not mature for many years but it changed gradually;
Here we focus on Continental realism as an approach to foreign policy;
Realism believes that countries are controlled by interests and quest for power in international relations rather than ideals and humanity and charity. Continental realists believe in "auteur" theory of foreign policy. Continental realists believe that the best foreign policy is the product of a single great master: a Bismarck, a Talleyrand, a Metternich, or a Kissinger. But, American political system did not created a smooth path for such characters and American foreign policy is not the product of a single mastermind. The senate provides its votes from all of the fifty states. The procedure of the senate ensures that regional views of the national interest will be represented in the process. Clearly the full regional diversity of the United States will be reflected in the conduct of its foreign policy. Voting patterns founded on these regional realities have often shaped American foreign policy in the past. The United States have always included many regions with different views and priorities in foreign policy. It has idealistic and populist voices in its foreign policy
Also continental realism refers to democratic nature of American policy.
Foreign policy was shaped by democratic values, interests, through both the 19th and 20th century. From the opinion of observes it is not a good thing both in foreign and domestic policy. Few people believe in the ability of democracies to conduct their foreign affairs in the moderate, firm, constructive and farsighted fashion.
Democratic theory believes that people can give wise judgments about domestic politics because each person is most capable of determining which candidates or measure best serves his or her interest but it is much less clear that citizens are informed about the vital issues in foreign policy.
In any case American foreign policy remained on a balance of constracting and competing voices and values, while, from 1949 to 1989 the United States was consumed by controversy over foreign policy, the time that the fundamental elements of foreign policy came into question.
Now the policy of United States is containment, it built NATO, it built a system of international trade it administrates the international system whit no serious war.
In fact, the position of the United States in world politics has changed from generation to generation and even decade to decade, interestingly, United States had no foreign policy before isolation and it was not prepared to face the world into which it emerged in twentieth century.
In the wartime, the fascism and Japanese ideologies which had been the cause of war, crushed and world’s free people including Russians, Chinese, the British and the French were in control and American foreign policy which apparently was fade, led to myth of cold war.
Some basic elements led to rise of continental realism in the United States during cold war. At first, United States did not face serious economic competition during the cold war because of its financial independence. Also, the federal government became larger, more powerful and more secretive and gradually imperial presidency was created. Social and cultural factors also pushed the United States toward continental realism.

o In the twenty-first century, American foreign policy focused on other issues which were less important during cold war. These issues were economics, international order building or globalization, and the relationship of democracy and foreign policy.
New paradigm for American foreign policy depends on three basic ideas. The first is that American economy has been in the core of international economic system. The second idea is that American foreign policy has been determined by nation interest in international trading and financial order. The third one is the importance of democracy in American success. On the other hand there is a link between American foreign policy and domestic policy. Both of them try to prepare free, prosperous and peaceful world for Americans.

Schools of American foreign policy:
There are four approaches in American foreign policy which have evolved in response to changes in the international order and in American society. The first school is “Hamiltonians” which believes that providing American interest is the most important duty of government.
“Wilsonian” is the second school. It believes that United States has both moral and practical duty to spread its values through the world. It emphasizes on legal and moral aspects of world order than on economic agenda.
The third one believes that American democracy is in danger and American independence should be defended. The sources of this approach are john Quincy Adams and George Kennan. The final school is named for Andrew Jackson. He represents a populist and popular culture of honor, independence, courage, and military pride among the American people.
Mostly, in American foreign policy Hamiltonians and Wilsonian were conquering approaches.


Walter Ruseell mead, (2000), Special providence American foreign policy and how it changed the world.