“Social stratification in United States”

Social stratification:
When we speak of social stratification we mean inequality between various groups of people. Inequality exists in all sorts of societies and cultures. Societies are consisted of layers that are hierarchical.
The four basic stratification systems are: 1) slavery 2) caste 3) estate 4) class.
Stratification systems of slavery, caste and estate have been demolished in modern societies except some tribal societies.
The social class system is mainly a description of how scarce resources (wealth, income, education and occupation) are distributed in society. In other words Class could be explained as an indication of the positions a person may occupy within society, positions which are not equal.Thus, in order to analysis social classes in a society, it is necessary to explain that how these resources are distributed and make social classes.
In spite of the fact that some scholars argue that in developed countries, inequality has reduced rather than previous societies but, social stratification, inequality and class conflict have increasing rate today. In the United States Inequality between rich and poor has increased to the extent that the gap among them is larger than any point in the past 75 years. United States has the largest wealth disparity of any industrialized nation in the world and this disparity is growing larger every year.

In the United States, income is obviously one important scarce resource. Clearly, it is occupation that provides income, and it is education that determines the sort of occupation. At the more extent level, income is related to life consequences, such as the quality and quantity of education, health care, and housing one obtains, and even the how long one lives. So, there is interrelationship between accesses to each of these sources.
As I mentioned, in the United States individual income depends on educational characteristics; in 2005 most people with doctorate and professional degrees were in top 15% of income earners. Those with Bachelor degrees had incomes considerably above the national median and people with college degree had less income.
Also the below chart indicates the link between education and income;

Chart 1-Median personal income by educational attainment (2005)

degree High school H s graduate college Associate degree Bachelor degree Master's degree Professionaldegree earning $20,321 $26,505 $31,054 $35,009 $49,303 $52,390 $82,473


The noticeable point is that, while the population of the United States is becoming increasingly educated on all levels, the conspicuous link between income and educational attainment remains.
Another point is that tertiary education is rarely free; education in elite private colleges for a four year program costs $120,000 approximately. While public colleges and universities costs much less but they are not free. Scholarships and low interest loans by government and universities are available too, but still the cost of education is high for many people.
Overall, educational attainment serves as one of the most essential class feature of most Americans, which is directly linked to income and occupation.

On one hand occupational status is consequence of educational attainment, personal or family income and on the other hand it defines access to other resources including income and health.
Low-wage jobs are associated with those people who have less education. Workers in these areas are unskilled because it does not require education in order to perform these jobs. But, White collar jobs require more human capital, skill and knowledge and therefore produce higher earnings. With higher education it is more likely for one to occupy a professional-level job wherein he or she may earn a higher salary. Therefore, those with less education are more likely to be working in Low-wage jobs.
Each particular job influences on lifestyle; income and prestige that gained from a job determine living environment, the kind of foods, medical care, sort of social networks, entertainment, spare times, and behavior.
It is education that makes upper-middle, middle and lower-middle scores on occupational spectrum; unskilled employees, employees with less than seven years of schooling, high school graduated ones, college graduate, licentiate, MS holders, professionals and experts with Doctorate degree located on different scores of occupational spectrum. So while all functions and positions in society do not determine with occupation, the job role is one of the most important status features in the United States.
Another feature that determines individuals’ position in the society is wealth. Wealth is what people own in assets such as houses, cars, stocks, shares, saved money, and lands.
While United States is the second rich county in the world, the distribution of wealth is too unfair. The top 1% of all population owned 38% of the wealth, 10% of population had 71% of wealth and on the other hand the bottom 40% owned less than 1% of the nation's wealth.
Totally, the distribution of wealth is much more unequal than the distribution of income (what people receive in the course of a year by working).

According to these basic elements (income, wealth, occupation and education) which determine the social class of individuals and households, Americans believe in three- class model that includes the rich, the middle class and the poor, while, in reality American society is more diverse, economically and sociologically. It means that there is no clear class distinction between socio-economic strata.

Social mobility:
The most important concept in a class system of stratification is social mobility. In class system, social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement; personal merit becomes more important. In fact, Industrial societies move towards meritocracy and in this kind of societies status consistency is lower than in other sorts of societies. Since societies became more competitive and more meritocratic some elements such as energy, social skills, character, ambition, physical attractiveness, talent, and luck played great role in social mobility and changing social position.
Now the question is that “How much mobility Americans have experienced during their life?”
Social mobility refers to changes in social position which occur during a person’s lifetime. There are two ways to study social mobility; Intragenerational Mobility and Intergenerational mobility.
By the first concept, we mean upward and downward movement in social ladder and by second one we refer to upward and downward movement in social hierarchy compared with the previous generation.
In order to explaining occupational mobility, mostly, scholars focus on father-child or household head–child occupational persistence (Intergenerational mobility).
If we distinguished six general occupational categories including upper professional or manager, lower professional or clerical, self-employed, technical or skilled trade, farm, unskilled and service workers, in united states, among men whom born after 1950, 32 percent of men were immobile (their occupation was in the same category as their father's), 37 percent were upwardly mobile, and 32 percent were downwardly mobile. About women, data show that 27 percent were immobile, 46 percent were upwardly mobile, and 28 percent were downwardly mobile. Then, in occupation upward mobility was more common than downward mobility and Comparisons with other industrialized countries occupational mobility in the United States is reasonably high.
According to studies, intergenerational elasticity (IGE) in income between fathers and sons was estimated 0.4 or higher. Totally, actual association between parents' and children's incomes is high.
Wealth mobility is totally different from occupational and income mobility; at first, wealth is important because its distribution is more unequal than the distribution of income and on the other hand it effects on other aspects of family well-being, especially homeownership and investment in children's education. Also, there is substantial intergenerational persistence in family wealth and the correlation is in the neighborhood of 0.50. The disparity in wealth persists between the generations. Thus, people who have no wealth loose opportunities. As an example, inherited wealth can put families in better neighborhoods and school districts than they could afford if they had to rely just on their incomes.

Social class in the United States is affected by individual achievement, as I said, Occupation, educational attainment and income can be earned and increased through a lifetime, but still it is undeniable that the rich have more money, more education, better occupation, better health, and consume more.
As a conclusion we should say that without the concept of social stratification, it is impossible to understand people’s behavior, because social class determines all aspects of our life…., our happiness, our religious beliefs, our customs, our interests and hobbies our health and even how long we will live and totally our life style.

http://www.urban.org/
http://www.futureofchildren.org/
http://www.wikipedia.com/

What is American studies?

American studies is an interdisciplinary study composed of the many disciplines, all of which try to describe the culture of United States. The multi-disciplinary perspectives on culture of United States accompanies the other major aspects of American society such as its politics, economy, history and also more specific fields on these matters like arts, government, literature, communications, education, religion and etc…. American studies provides a program in which music, literature, media, etc…. are studied in cultural and historical background. On the other hand foreign and public policy, foreign and public culture, educational system and …. are studied from the point of economy, politics, culture and history.
On the other hand, each of ethnic groups and minorities such as women, African Americans, Jews, Moslems and homosexuals are noticeable parts of American studies from the point of economy, politics, culture and history.
Some thing that is conspicuous in all of these fields is Americanism. It means that in all of this studies exceptional characteristic of American culture makes it totally different from situation of all other countries in the world. American studies is study of power and diversity. American studies is the analyses of the super power which is controlling the whole world. It is study of the multi cultural society which includes various cultures and subcultures and at the same time has created a unique and distinctive culture.
United States is running the economical system of the world; it owns all political power and controls the world according to its own policies. despite the fact that the history of the united states is not too long but it is the history of war and force, it is the history of creation of super power in an approximately short time.
in order to understanding the world, recognition of united states as super power is necessary.

Female prisoners' rights
United States has criticized for having huge number of prisoners and increasing number of female prisoners; in 2004 United States had highest percentage of prisoners in the world. There were more than 2.2 million in prisons or jails, or 737 per 100,000 population, or roughly 1 out of every 136 Americans.
Human Rights Watch complains about this huge population of prisoners, it believes that this rate of incarceration damages individuals, families, communities and strength of the nation. In any case the issue that I am going to focus here is not the high rate of prisoners but, it is their rights and their condition in prison. Federal and state laws established rights of prisoners as well as other humans. Although they do not have full constitutional rights but, the constitution protects them from cruel and unusual punishment. They are protected against unequal treatment on the basis of race, sex, and creed. In fact, prisoners' right is one of noticeable part of human rights which is expected to be provided based upon the constitution of United States as the first defender of human rights. But, the government of United States does not concentrate to execution of human rights in prison. According to senior counsel of the US Program at Human Rights Watch in condition that approximately one in 20 prisoners being raped or sexually abused, it is clear that prison authorities do not take enough action to prisoners' rights.
Certainly prison rape is not inevitable but, Human Rights Watch concerns on prisoners' rape in United States because the rate of reported Sexual abuse and rape in United States prisons are unusual and extraordinary.
There are 148,000 women in state and federal prisons. Female inmates are victim of rape, sexual extortion by prison officials. Correctional officials retaliate against women who complain about sexual assault and harassment, and they threat women’s children and visitation rights as a means of silencing the women. Sometimes segregation or long staying in jail is the punishment of those who speak anything about sexual abuse.
Also, sexual abuse has occurred by inmates. In this cases officials do not attention to provide prisoners security, they do not answer to complaints of unwanted sexual activity. Mostly, they condoned inmate-on-inmate abuse. Totally, being a female prisoner in united stares is an awful experience. Women are sexually abused, they are suffered by officials or other inmates, complaints are not effective, officials are not accountable for their crime because they have more power than prisoners. Some times guilty officials are just sent to other places to work, not have been punished. All these show that the authorities fail to manage effective policy on sexual abuse.
Noticeably, one of the most important elements in sexual misconduct in United States prisons for women is that the government permits male to be employees and guards in women prisons. In this position, prisoners who are condemned for breaking others' rights, loose their primary rights, they loose their physical security. Sexual abuse threats women lives it devastates human spirit. It leads to depression, and shattering loss of self-esteem.
Under both international and national law prisons are required to prohibit torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and to ensure that such abuse is investigated and punished.

http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/index.php/Prisoners
http://www.spr.org/index.asp
http://www.hrw.org/

http://www.wikipedia.org/

"American National Identity Of Democracy"
The way of thinking, feeling and acting have been rooted in social contexts, individuals have multiple “social identities”. Members of social groups distinguish themselves from others with the notion of their own identity. Distinction of a particular group from others makes the term of "we". Nation, social class, ethnicity, gender, subculture, age, religion, etc can make notion of social identity. Forming the nation of America lies in its identity and character. One respect of American national identity which makes them different from people in other countries is "identity of democracy".
Democracy in the United States which shapes American national identity is based upon the principle of American declaration; the main principle in that document is the principle of equality in the United States.
In fact, they understand democracy and their own political identity as Americans in opposition to dictatorship. They found themselves as people, whom, for the first time live under democracy than under dictatorship. They believe that there is not any other sort of political organization, they believe that dictatorship have been rooted in the European political system. Americans found dictatorship and democracy as the only models of political system. A real American should be sure that democracy works in their country. It means that they believe that all Americans should participate in the process of decision-making. Any Americans should be under the sovereignty of others; the main characteristic of Americans is that they could not bare the dominancy of governors. Their national identity implicates that all individuals in the Whole country should participate in political arena. In this Way they make peace and tranquility in their country. The concept American democracy emphasizes that all humans are born with equal rights and as such are entitled to equal treatment. They believe that principles of equal rights are valid and should be executed in their society. The rights of individual citizens and, totally, principles of democracy are guaranteed in United States with constitution and it is some thing that makes Americans different from people in other countries. From Americans point of view, in the other countries, powerful politicians whom are basically separated from ordinary people run the society.
They believe that governmental leaders, especially in Islamic countries, are charismas whom are different from other people, while in United States, people control the country. Their national identity implicates that all individuals in the whole country should participate in political arena. In this way they make peace and tranquility in their country.

America shaps a unified people instead of various ethnic groups and different cultures and subcultures; citizen should not identify themselves as African-Americans, Asian-Americans or disabled Americans; they are Americans, pure Americans, just Americans.
It is not important that where you're from or where you're born. Being an American totally is different with being a citizen; all people with various nationalities could be American with the sense of American national identity.
The openness of American system is accepting of all people whom are loyal to Americanism. The Americans' honour is that their country is multicultural and democratic at the same time.
Deeply rooted in the concept of an "American identity" are ideals of democratic values and the principles of freedom, justice, and individualism.
They called their country the "land of opportunity" and the model of democracy. All Americans are equal and no one could be superior over others, while, all Americans are superior rather than non Americans.
Membership in the national community demands only the decision to become American, Americans are Americans by choice not by their nation or geographical territory that they ere born there.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_identity#searchInput
http://www.authorhouse.com/BookStore/
http://www.sdonline.org/33/melanie_bush.htm
http://uncpress.unc.edu/FMPro

film review over dead man

http://imdb.com/title/tt0112817/usercomments-243

http://ezinearticles.com/?id=902517

DEAD MAN

Director: Jim Jarmusch, Writer: Jim Jarmusch, Date: 10 May 1996 (USA) Genre: drama / western, Awards: two wins and 5 nominations Filming Locations: Applegate River, Oregon, USA, Company: Pandora Filmproduktion
Main actors: Johnny Depp (William Blake), Gary farmer (nobody), Crispin Glover (train fireman), Robert Mitchum( john Dickinson), Gabriel Byrne (Charlie Dickinson), Lance Henriksen (Cole Wilson), Michael Wincott (Conway Twill), Eugene Byrd Johnny (The Kid) Pickett.
Jim Jarmusch is a leading American filmmaker who began his career in 1980 with PERMANENT VACATION. Before dead man, he directed many films and continuing series of short films. He says the openness of the western form, and its inseparable connection to "America" is the reason that he makes dead man in the form of western film.

Dead man is the history of a traveler from Cleveland to western frontier of America in second half of the nineteen century. William Blake (Johnny Deep) a gentleman moves to town of Machine, a small town far in west, where he has been promised a job. In the first moments of his journey he encounters passengers who open fire on herd of Buffalo, all of them carry gun and shoot and kill easily. The only ordinary conversation that Blake experiences during his journey is whit a fireman (Crispin Glover) whom cannot even read. Blake is shocked when he arrives in an exotic, outlaw, uncivilized, dirty and violate city. When he goes to Melta Works, office manager rejects him because of his delay, but, it does not seem that date and guarantee of work is important for them. John Dickinson, the boss, speaks with the language of gun. With no job, no money and no hope in a gun city, he becomes familiar with a girl who seems different from others. They find each other as kinder spirits but the girl is killed by his former lover -Dickinson's son- when she is in bed with Blake. Blake kills the man by girl's gun in self defense. He escapes from town and on the outskirts, he encounters with a strange Native American who called himself "Nobody". He believes that Blake is the dead English poet who died in 1827. He goes to spiritual journey that is inspired by real Blake poems.

Noticeably, in a key scene, Nobody asks Blake, "Did you kill the white man who killed you?" Bill answers, "I am not dead".

First of all Nobody teaches him "you will learn to use your guns instead of words, your poetry will now be written in blood". Soon he learns to cope with the condition that he had never confronted. Contrary to his personality he becomes a hunter and killer but, he does not completely change to a western American. His eyes are open to humanity. He and Nobody kill all persons who want to trap him; he kills big George Drakulious (Billy Bob Thompson), Salvator Jenko (Iggy Pop), Benmont Tench (Jarred Harris), and some other persons. By the end of the film Blake has traveled far beyond every where, maybe he is traveling toward his death.

The film contains a continuing contradiction: the contrast between civilized east and Wild West. Paradox of Blake's spiritual journey in search of his ultimate destiny which changes his personality to a brutal killer, the coarse Native American man who does not believe in any identity for himself but thinks, experiences spiritual journey, believes in poem and has a sense of respect to the poet, Thel (Mili Avital) the girl, who keeps gun in her bed and perfidies to his lover, has pure and sensitive spirit, Conway Twill (Michael Wincott) one of the most skillful killers in the city has a doll and sleeps with that.

On the technical side, the black and white filming recalls the primitive atmosphere of nineteen century, it gives the sense of nostalgia and solitude of both Dead Man and Nobody, of all people who live together but live in dread, dread of their own language, language of GUN. On the other hand, during the film, black and white space gives the massage of DEATH, the great mystery which there is no specific color for visualizing it. So, Black and white is another contradiction.
Dead Man is composed by Neil Young; the instrumental soundtrack of film which is mostly Electric guitar switches occasionally to pump organ, detuned piano and acoustic guitar. It is a weird soundtrack which is fit to a western film. Totally, it's a different western movie and it's not an easy film to understand.

WASHINGTON (AFP) - President George W. Bush Tuesday said Iran is still a danger and refused to take military options off the table, despite a US intelligence report saying it had halted its nuclear weapons program in 2003.

"Iran was dangerous, Iran is dangerous and Iran will be dangerous if they have the knowledge necessary to make a nuclear weapon." Bush said.

Americans see Iran as a big danger against universal peace

They believed Iran is trying to learn how to enrich uranium and is trying to achieve great successes in nuclear weapon and could restart the atomic weapons programme anytime.
National Intelligence Estimate argues Iran is following a secret nuclear weapons program.
Their opinion is that America tried to prevent World War III, but Iran remains as a threat for war.

They found keeping the international pressure on Iran the best way to suspend its program and ensure peace in the world.

They may warn Iran "You can continue to do policy that will isolate you, or there's a better way forward" so it is Sticks-and-carrots approach against nuclear power.

book review over Black Civil Rights in America

http://ezinearticles.com/?id=887827

Title: Black Civil Rights in America
Author: Kevern Verney
Publisher: Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006

This book is a commanding introduction to the history of black civil rights in the U.S., it provides a comprehensive history of African American struggle for freedom from 1860-1990.
The first five chapters encircle what might be seen as the traditional areas of African American studies and the last two chapters add future perception of African Americans.
In chapter one, Kevern Verney, begins with explaining about growth of urban population in American society in the last decades of 19th century by internal migration and mostly overseas immigration.
Between 1880 and 1921 most of the immigrants arrived from southern and eastern European countries, but in the world war period because of wartime condition and also legal restrictions, European immigration fell and industrial growth led to great migration (1915-1925) in which 7 million African Americans escaped from racism in rural southern United States into cities. In fact they were offended from southern cities for some reasons such as suffering economic condition, and on the other hand boom in industrial productions created job opportunities for blacks in north. Their situation in north was better, though, racism was present there.
At first, most large cities of north had small African American communities but gradually racial tensions increased and segregation spread in cities, formally.
After a while whites and blacks found that in race relations they could not achieve any improvement.
By creation of this idea about racism, national urban league (NUL) was established as the major civil rights organization in 20th century.
Also, Marcus Garvey founded universal negro improvement association and African communities league and in 1923 it had one million members in the united states.

Chapter two allocated to Great Depression (1928) and consequences of Second World War (1939-45) for African Americans.Verney explains Great Depression as a dramatic, world wide economic downturn which led to urban poverty and unemployment and racial discrimination.
On one hand, administration of republican president Herbert Hoover did noting to reduce blacks disasters during great depression and on the other hand the aims of national black civil rights organization were influenced by the Great Depression.
One of the most important African Americans leaders was emerged in 1920 that named Philip Randolph. He found Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP) which was the first black labor union .later; in 1935 he became the president of the National Negro Congress. NNC was established in order to unite black groups to confront the problems of the depression. But it was not able to deal with the problems.
By the liberalists’ victory in the presidential election, New Deal was innovated in order to giving reform to people and economy of the United States during great depression. In 1935 National Youth Administration as a new deal agency established under the supervision of an African American.
But, in practice, not all new Deal agencies were enlighted, but New Deal as a whole was beneficially to African Americans.
In 1935 a trade union body for workers was formed which raised the political consciousness of black workers. All of these changes constituted pre-condition for civil rights campaigns.
The Second World War, also, had noticeable results for African Americans but the total impact of that was to advance further the changes set in motion during New Deal. In wartime huge number of blacks served in U.S. army and as a result their grassroots consciousness increased and after war they had heightened expectations and but unfortunately during 1930 and 1940 there were few racial advances in popular culture.

In chapter three he describes the effects of the Second World War on civil rights movements as a vital part of the blacks' struggles for freedom and then vernery refers to the process of African American civil rights .
In the mid 1940 the national democratic party was divided on racial issue , while, northern wing argued for a more liberal stance on civil rights questions the southern opposed to any changes in the status quo.
Truman empowered the creation of a rights committee to investigate the state of race relations in America by that he made the first third party presidential election. In any case, committee recommendations awarded for an end to segregation in transportation, in public schools and later in military.
The emergence of civil rights in the end of the Second World War was destroyed by cold war politics.
But later, newcomers from the Third World encouraged African Americans for civil rights and on the other hand anti- communist purges help civil rights groups to authorize themselves. Civil rights groups during the 1950s and 1960s focused on issues like voting rights but because of disorders civil rights campaigns failed to confront problems of poverty and economic inequality.
Ultimately all of these changes led to some advances for blacks but racial relationship dominated in the society.
In this chapter the author focused also on great men as Martin Luther, Elijah, Muhammed, Malcolm, Jesse Jackson, but except for a brief mention pf Ella Baker the importance of the women to the movement is virtually ignored.

Chapter 4 of this book is about Black Power during the 1965 and 1976. It noticed to Black Power adherents whom believed in Black Nationalism and necessity to use violence as a means of achieving their aims.
As the result a black power group organized revolutionary action movement and then Black Panther Party as an African American organization.
But the severest repression destroyed the Black Panthers and most of its leaders were killed or imprisoned .when Nixon became president he concentrated on the principle that the law must be color-blind and he support affirmative action, that’s why during his time integration of public schools in the South foe the first time took place.

Chapter 5 begins with black condition during 1980s. In the first years if the 1980s blacks achieved political success but Jesse Jackson whom was a candidate of democratic presidential nomination held no elect office at all. But he could establish Rainbow and PUSH which were established to demand social programs, voting rights and affirmative actions. Totally race relations were reflected in American popular culture during the last 25 years of 20th century.

As a conclusion it should be say although African Americans achieved some success but many figures of the civil rights movement has ignored; in the last year of 20th century half of the black children continued to live in poverty, many black men were in prison and... .

Verney is able to highlight key turning points and developments, their causes and consequences.
This book is invaluable for both students and readers whom want to have an almanac for African Americans history.