American foreign policy

In the last decade of 20th century Great Britain was at the center of the global empire and financial system. The Britain which entered into 20th century as a lion became a weak lamb. During the revolution British troops occupied many major cities in American colonies; the United States had no power to resist against the European powers. But American people did not allow the government to look weak in foreign policies.
After revolution continental congress was not able to manage foreign relations under the article of confederation, and supporters of new constitution notice to power of the national government to have effective foreign policy.
In the last years of 19th century and early in the 20th century American politics changed by series of foreign policy debates. No European power did better than United States in the 20th century, all of them played much worse. Americans be aware of relationships between domestic prosperity and international economy. Even in the 19th century foreign policy was at the hearth of American politic. There were four important issues in American politics during he 19th century; slavery, westward expansion, the tariffs and monetary policy. All of these are recognized as foreign policy even the issue of slavery.
American government in 19th century played important role to opening the doors of American and African trades. The United States played admirable role in the international relations.
Politics elites notice to American foreign policy during the isolationist period, even. During American isolation us navy was active in every ocean.
After civil wars America became world power while established hegemony in the western hemisphere. United States had undeniable role in shaping the peace, the monarchical power of Europe vanished after war while it was great thrones previously.
World War I made the United States the world's greatest financial power defeated Germany economically and weakened Britain and France. The result of the war indicated that any country in the world could overcome the great power of United States.
The result of the world war II was the same, the united states enter the war later than other powers , lost less blood and realized greater gains.
The American language, culture, products diffused in the world, its dollar became international means of business and its popular culture dominated the media and market around the world. Foreign investment played noticeable role in American prosperity.
The United States became central power in a worldwide system of finance, communications, and trade.
The criticism of American policy are so various and vociferous.
When we examine the content of criticism against American foreign policy we find a series of contradictory themes: that American foreign policy is naive, too calculating, too openhanded, too violent, too isolationist, too universality, too unilateral, too multilateral, too moralistic, and too immoral.
At the time of the American Revolution, there was some thing like an intellectuals run the government which brought active and successful foreign policy, it was aristocracy. Aristocrats had the leisure to travel abroad and to study the history and languages required for diplomacy. They took long view of their country's interests, they were prepared to undertake policies whose benefits might not mature for many years but it changed gradually;
Here we focus on Continental realism as an approach to foreign policy;
Realism believes that countries are controlled by interests and quest for power in international relations rather than ideals and humanity and charity. Continental realists believe in "auteur" theory of foreign policy. Continental realists believe that the best foreign policy is the product of a single great master: a Bismarck, a Talleyrand, a Metternich, or a Kissinger. But, American political system did not created a smooth path for such characters and American foreign policy is not the product of a single mastermind. The senate provides its votes from all of the fifty states. The procedure of the senate ensures that regional views of the national interest will be represented in the process. Clearly the full regional diversity of the United States will be reflected in the conduct of its foreign policy. Voting patterns founded on these regional realities have often shaped American foreign policy in the past. The United States have always included many regions with different views and priorities in foreign policy. It has idealistic and populist voices in its foreign policy
Also continental realism refers to democratic nature of American policy.
Foreign policy was shaped by democratic values, interests, through both the 19th and 20th century. From the opinion of observes it is not a good thing both in foreign and domestic policy. Few people believe in the ability of democracies to conduct their foreign affairs in the moderate, firm, constructive and farsighted fashion.
Democratic theory believes that people can give wise judgments about domestic politics because each person is most capable of determining which candidates or measure best serves his or her interest but it is much less clear that citizens are informed about the vital issues in foreign policy.
In any case American foreign policy remained on a balance of constracting and competing voices and values, while, from 1949 to 1989 the United States was consumed by controversy over foreign policy, the time that the fundamental elements of foreign policy came into question.
Now the policy of United States is containment, it built NATO, it built a system of international trade it administrates the international system whit no serious war.
In fact, the position of the United States in world politics has changed from generation to generation and even decade to decade, interestingly, United States had no foreign policy before isolation and it was not prepared to face the world into which it emerged in twentieth century.
In the wartime, the fascism and Japanese ideologies which had been the cause of war, crushed and world’s free people including Russians, Chinese, the British and the French were in control and American foreign policy which apparently was fade, led to myth of cold war.
Some basic elements led to rise of continental realism in the United States during cold war. At first, United States did not face serious economic competition during the cold war because of its financial independence. Also, the federal government became larger, more powerful and more secretive and gradually imperial presidency was created. Social and cultural factors also pushed the United States toward continental realism.

o In the twenty-first century, American foreign policy focused on other issues which were less important during cold war. These issues were economics, international order building or globalization, and the relationship of democracy and foreign policy.
New paradigm for American foreign policy depends on three basic ideas. The first is that American economy has been in the core of international economic system. The second idea is that American foreign policy has been determined by nation interest in international trading and financial order. The third one is the importance of democracy in American success. On the other hand there is a link between American foreign policy and domestic policy. Both of them try to prepare free, prosperous and peaceful world for Americans.

Schools of American foreign policy:
There are four approaches in American foreign policy which have evolved in response to changes in the international order and in American society. The first school is “Hamiltonians” which believes that providing American interest is the most important duty of government.
“Wilsonian” is the second school. It believes that United States has both moral and practical duty to spread its values through the world. It emphasizes on legal and moral aspects of world order than on economic agenda.
The third one believes that American democracy is in danger and American independence should be defended. The sources of this approach are john Quincy Adams and George Kennan. The final school is named for Andrew Jackson. He represents a populist and popular culture of honor, independence, courage, and military pride among the American people.
Mostly, in American foreign policy Hamiltonians and Wilsonian were conquering approaches.


Walter Ruseell mead, (2000), Special providence American foreign policy and how it changed the world.

“Social stratification in United States”

Social stratification:
When we speak of social stratification we mean inequality between various groups of people. Inequality exists in all sorts of societies and cultures. Societies are consisted of layers that are hierarchical.
The four basic stratification systems are: 1) slavery 2) caste 3) estate 4) class.
Stratification systems of slavery, caste and estate have been demolished in modern societies except some tribal societies.
The social class system is mainly a description of how scarce resources (wealth, income, education and occupation) are distributed in society. In other words Class could be explained as an indication of the positions a person may occupy within society, positions which are not equal.Thus, in order to analysis social classes in a society, it is necessary to explain that how these resources are distributed and make social classes.
In spite of the fact that some scholars argue that in developed countries, inequality has reduced rather than previous societies but, social stratification, inequality and class conflict have increasing rate today. In the United States Inequality between rich and poor has increased to the extent that the gap among them is larger than any point in the past 75 years. United States has the largest wealth disparity of any industrialized nation in the world and this disparity is growing larger every year.

In the United States, income is obviously one important scarce resource. Clearly, it is occupation that provides income, and it is education that determines the sort of occupation. At the more extent level, income is related to life consequences, such as the quality and quantity of education, health care, and housing one obtains, and even the how long one lives. So, there is interrelationship between accesses to each of these sources.
As I mentioned, in the United States individual income depends on educational characteristics; in 2005 most people with doctorate and professional degrees were in top 15% of income earners. Those with Bachelor degrees had incomes considerably above the national median and people with college degree had less income.
Also the below chart indicates the link between education and income;

Chart 1-Median personal income by educational attainment (2005)

degree High school H s graduate college Associate degree Bachelor degree Master's degree Professionaldegree earning $20,321 $26,505 $31,054 $35,009 $49,303 $52,390 $82,473


The noticeable point is that, while the population of the United States is becoming increasingly educated on all levels, the conspicuous link between income and educational attainment remains.
Another point is that tertiary education is rarely free; education in elite private colleges for a four year program costs $120,000 approximately. While public colleges and universities costs much less but they are not free. Scholarships and low interest loans by government and universities are available too, but still the cost of education is high for many people.
Overall, educational attainment serves as one of the most essential class feature of most Americans, which is directly linked to income and occupation.

On one hand occupational status is consequence of educational attainment, personal or family income and on the other hand it defines access to other resources including income and health.
Low-wage jobs are associated with those people who have less education. Workers in these areas are unskilled because it does not require education in order to perform these jobs. But, White collar jobs require more human capital, skill and knowledge and therefore produce higher earnings. With higher education it is more likely for one to occupy a professional-level job wherein he or she may earn a higher salary. Therefore, those with less education are more likely to be working in Low-wage jobs.
Each particular job influences on lifestyle; income and prestige that gained from a job determine living environment, the kind of foods, medical care, sort of social networks, entertainment, spare times, and behavior.
It is education that makes upper-middle, middle and lower-middle scores on occupational spectrum; unskilled employees, employees with less than seven years of schooling, high school graduated ones, college graduate, licentiate, MS holders, professionals and experts with Doctorate degree located on different scores of occupational spectrum. So while all functions and positions in society do not determine with occupation, the job role is one of the most important status features in the United States.
Another feature that determines individuals’ position in the society is wealth. Wealth is what people own in assets such as houses, cars, stocks, shares, saved money, and lands.
While United States is the second rich county in the world, the distribution of wealth is too unfair. The top 1% of all population owned 38% of the wealth, 10% of population had 71% of wealth and on the other hand the bottom 40% owned less than 1% of the nation's wealth.
Totally, the distribution of wealth is much more unequal than the distribution of income (what people receive in the course of a year by working).

According to these basic elements (income, wealth, occupation and education) which determine the social class of individuals and households, Americans believe in three- class model that includes the rich, the middle class and the poor, while, in reality American society is more diverse, economically and sociologically. It means that there is no clear class distinction between socio-economic strata.

Social mobility:
The most important concept in a class system of stratification is social mobility. In class system, social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement; personal merit becomes more important. In fact, Industrial societies move towards meritocracy and in this kind of societies status consistency is lower than in other sorts of societies. Since societies became more competitive and more meritocratic some elements such as energy, social skills, character, ambition, physical attractiveness, talent, and luck played great role in social mobility and changing social position.
Now the question is that “How much mobility Americans have experienced during their life?”
Social mobility refers to changes in social position which occur during a person’s lifetime. There are two ways to study social mobility; Intragenerational Mobility and Intergenerational mobility.
By the first concept, we mean upward and downward movement in social ladder and by second one we refer to upward and downward movement in social hierarchy compared with the previous generation.
In order to explaining occupational mobility, mostly, scholars focus on father-child or household head–child occupational persistence (Intergenerational mobility).
If we distinguished six general occupational categories including upper professional or manager, lower professional or clerical, self-employed, technical or skilled trade, farm, unskilled and service workers, in united states, among men whom born after 1950, 32 percent of men were immobile (their occupation was in the same category as their father's), 37 percent were upwardly mobile, and 32 percent were downwardly mobile. About women, data show that 27 percent were immobile, 46 percent were upwardly mobile, and 28 percent were downwardly mobile. Then, in occupation upward mobility was more common than downward mobility and Comparisons with other industrialized countries occupational mobility in the United States is reasonably high.
According to studies, intergenerational elasticity (IGE) in income between fathers and sons was estimated 0.4 or higher. Totally, actual association between parents' and children's incomes is high.
Wealth mobility is totally different from occupational and income mobility; at first, wealth is important because its distribution is more unequal than the distribution of income and on the other hand it effects on other aspects of family well-being, especially homeownership and investment in children's education. Also, there is substantial intergenerational persistence in family wealth and the correlation is in the neighborhood of 0.50. The disparity in wealth persists between the generations. Thus, people who have no wealth loose opportunities. As an example, inherited wealth can put families in better neighborhoods and school districts than they could afford if they had to rely just on their incomes.

Social class in the United States is affected by individual achievement, as I said, Occupation, educational attainment and income can be earned and increased through a lifetime, but still it is undeniable that the rich have more money, more education, better occupation, better health, and consume more.
As a conclusion we should say that without the concept of social stratification, it is impossible to understand people’s behavior, because social class determines all aspects of our life…., our happiness, our religious beliefs, our customs, our interests and hobbies our health and even how long we will live and totally our life style.

http://www.urban.org/
http://www.futureofchildren.org/
http://www.wikipedia.com/

What is American studies?

American studies is an interdisciplinary study composed of the many disciplines, all of which try to describe the culture of United States. The multi-disciplinary perspectives on culture of United States accompanies the other major aspects of American society such as its politics, economy, history and also more specific fields on these matters like arts, government, literature, communications, education, religion and etc…. American studies provides a program in which music, literature, media, etc…. are studied in cultural and historical background. On the other hand foreign and public policy, foreign and public culture, educational system and …. are studied from the point of economy, politics, culture and history.
On the other hand, each of ethnic groups and minorities such as women, African Americans, Jews, Moslems and homosexuals are noticeable parts of American studies from the point of economy, politics, culture and history.
Some thing that is conspicuous in all of these fields is Americanism. It means that in all of this studies exceptional characteristic of American culture makes it totally different from situation of all other countries in the world. American studies is study of power and diversity. American studies is the analyses of the super power which is controlling the whole world. It is study of the multi cultural society which includes various cultures and subcultures and at the same time has created a unique and distinctive culture.
United States is running the economical system of the world; it owns all political power and controls the world according to its own policies. despite the fact that the history of the united states is not too long but it is the history of war and force, it is the history of creation of super power in an approximately short time.
in order to understanding the world, recognition of united states as super power is necessary.

Female prisoners' rights
United States has criticized for having huge number of prisoners and increasing number of female prisoners; in 2004 United States had highest percentage of prisoners in the world. There were more than 2.2 million in prisons or jails, or 737 per 100,000 population, or roughly 1 out of every 136 Americans.
Human Rights Watch complains about this huge population of prisoners, it believes that this rate of incarceration damages individuals, families, communities and strength of the nation. In any case the issue that I am going to focus here is not the high rate of prisoners but, it is their rights and their condition in prison. Federal and state laws established rights of prisoners as well as other humans. Although they do not have full constitutional rights but, the constitution protects them from cruel and unusual punishment. They are protected against unequal treatment on the basis of race, sex, and creed. In fact, prisoners' right is one of noticeable part of human rights which is expected to be provided based upon the constitution of United States as the first defender of human rights. But, the government of United States does not concentrate to execution of human rights in prison. According to senior counsel of the US Program at Human Rights Watch in condition that approximately one in 20 prisoners being raped or sexually abused, it is clear that prison authorities do not take enough action to prisoners' rights.
Certainly prison rape is not inevitable but, Human Rights Watch concerns on prisoners' rape in United States because the rate of reported Sexual abuse and rape in United States prisons are unusual and extraordinary.
There are 148,000 women in state and federal prisons. Female inmates are victim of rape, sexual extortion by prison officials. Correctional officials retaliate against women who complain about sexual assault and harassment, and they threat women’s children and visitation rights as a means of silencing the women. Sometimes segregation or long staying in jail is the punishment of those who speak anything about sexual abuse.
Also, sexual abuse has occurred by inmates. In this cases officials do not attention to provide prisoners security, they do not answer to complaints of unwanted sexual activity. Mostly, they condoned inmate-on-inmate abuse. Totally, being a female prisoner in united stares is an awful experience. Women are sexually abused, they are suffered by officials or other inmates, complaints are not effective, officials are not accountable for their crime because they have more power than prisoners. Some times guilty officials are just sent to other places to work, not have been punished. All these show that the authorities fail to manage effective policy on sexual abuse.
Noticeably, one of the most important elements in sexual misconduct in United States prisons for women is that the government permits male to be employees and guards in women prisons. In this position, prisoners who are condemned for breaking others' rights, loose their primary rights, they loose their physical security. Sexual abuse threats women lives it devastates human spirit. It leads to depression, and shattering loss of self-esteem.
Under both international and national law prisons are required to prohibit torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and to ensure that such abuse is investigated and punished.

http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/index.php/Prisoners
http://www.spr.org/index.asp
http://www.hrw.org/

http://www.wikipedia.org/

"American National Identity Of Democracy"
The way of thinking, feeling and acting have been rooted in social contexts, individuals have multiple “social identities”. Members of social groups distinguish themselves from others with the notion of their own identity. Distinction of a particular group from others makes the term of "we". Nation, social class, ethnicity, gender, subculture, age, religion, etc can make notion of social identity. Forming the nation of America lies in its identity and character. One respect of American national identity which makes them different from people in other countries is "identity of democracy".
Democracy in the United States which shapes American national identity is based upon the principle of American declaration; the main principle in that document is the principle of equality in the United States.
In fact, they understand democracy and their own political identity as Americans in opposition to dictatorship. They found themselves as people, whom, for the first time live under democracy than under dictatorship. They believe that there is not any other sort of political organization, they believe that dictatorship have been rooted in the European political system. Americans found dictatorship and democracy as the only models of political system. A real American should be sure that democracy works in their country. It means that they believe that all Americans should participate in the process of decision-making. Any Americans should be under the sovereignty of others; the main characteristic of Americans is that they could not bare the dominancy of governors. Their national identity implicates that all individuals in the Whole country should participate in political arena. In this Way they make peace and tranquility in their country. The concept American democracy emphasizes that all humans are born with equal rights and as such are entitled to equal treatment. They believe that principles of equal rights are valid and should be executed in their society. The rights of individual citizens and, totally, principles of democracy are guaranteed in United States with constitution and it is some thing that makes Americans different from people in other countries. From Americans point of view, in the other countries, powerful politicians whom are basically separated from ordinary people run the society.
They believe that governmental leaders, especially in Islamic countries, are charismas whom are different from other people, while in United States, people control the country. Their national identity implicates that all individuals in the whole country should participate in political arena. In this way they make peace and tranquility in their country.

America shaps a unified people instead of various ethnic groups and different cultures and subcultures; citizen should not identify themselves as African-Americans, Asian-Americans or disabled Americans; they are Americans, pure Americans, just Americans.
It is not important that where you're from or where you're born. Being an American totally is different with being a citizen; all people with various nationalities could be American with the sense of American national identity.
The openness of American system is accepting of all people whom are loyal to Americanism. The Americans' honour is that their country is multicultural and democratic at the same time.
Deeply rooted in the concept of an "American identity" are ideals of democratic values and the principles of freedom, justice, and individualism.
They called their country the "land of opportunity" and the model of democracy. All Americans are equal and no one could be superior over others, while, all Americans are superior rather than non Americans.
Membership in the national community demands only the decision to become American, Americans are Americans by choice not by their nation or geographical territory that they ere born there.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_identity#searchInput
http://www.authorhouse.com/BookStore/
http://www.sdonline.org/33/melanie_bush.htm
http://uncpress.unc.edu/FMPro

film review over dead man

http://imdb.com/title/tt0112817/usercomments-243

http://ezinearticles.com/?id=902517

DEAD MAN

Director: Jim Jarmusch, Writer: Jim Jarmusch, Date: 10 May 1996 (USA) Genre: drama / western, Awards: two wins and 5 nominations Filming Locations: Applegate River, Oregon, USA, Company: Pandora Filmproduktion
Main actors: Johnny Depp (William Blake), Gary farmer (nobody), Crispin Glover (train fireman), Robert Mitchum( john Dickinson), Gabriel Byrne (Charlie Dickinson), Lance Henriksen (Cole Wilson), Michael Wincott (Conway Twill), Eugene Byrd Johnny (The Kid) Pickett.
Jim Jarmusch is a leading American filmmaker who began his career in 1980 with PERMANENT VACATION. Before dead man, he directed many films and continuing series of short films. He says the openness of the western form, and its inseparable connection to "America" is the reason that he makes dead man in the form of western film.

Dead man is the history of a traveler from Cleveland to western frontier of America in second half of the nineteen century. William Blake (Johnny Deep) a gentleman moves to town of Machine, a small town far in west, where he has been promised a job. In the first moments of his journey he encounters passengers who open fire on herd of Buffalo, all of them carry gun and shoot and kill easily. The only ordinary conversation that Blake experiences during his journey is whit a fireman (Crispin Glover) whom cannot even read. Blake is shocked when he arrives in an exotic, outlaw, uncivilized, dirty and violate city. When he goes to Melta Works, office manager rejects him because of his delay, but, it does not seem that date and guarantee of work is important for them. John Dickinson, the boss, speaks with the language of gun. With no job, no money and no hope in a gun city, he becomes familiar with a girl who seems different from others. They find each other as kinder spirits but the girl is killed by his former lover -Dickinson's son- when she is in bed with Blake. Blake kills the man by girl's gun in self defense. He escapes from town and on the outskirts, he encounters with a strange Native American who called himself "Nobody". He believes that Blake is the dead English poet who died in 1827. He goes to spiritual journey that is inspired by real Blake poems.

Noticeably, in a key scene, Nobody asks Blake, "Did you kill the white man who killed you?" Bill answers, "I am not dead".

First of all Nobody teaches him "you will learn to use your guns instead of words, your poetry will now be written in blood". Soon he learns to cope with the condition that he had never confronted. Contrary to his personality he becomes a hunter and killer but, he does not completely change to a western American. His eyes are open to humanity. He and Nobody kill all persons who want to trap him; he kills big George Drakulious (Billy Bob Thompson), Salvator Jenko (Iggy Pop), Benmont Tench (Jarred Harris), and some other persons. By the end of the film Blake has traveled far beyond every where, maybe he is traveling toward his death.

The film contains a continuing contradiction: the contrast between civilized east and Wild West. Paradox of Blake's spiritual journey in search of his ultimate destiny which changes his personality to a brutal killer, the coarse Native American man who does not believe in any identity for himself but thinks, experiences spiritual journey, believes in poem and has a sense of respect to the poet, Thel (Mili Avital) the girl, who keeps gun in her bed and perfidies to his lover, has pure and sensitive spirit, Conway Twill (Michael Wincott) one of the most skillful killers in the city has a doll and sleeps with that.

On the technical side, the black and white filming recalls the primitive atmosphere of nineteen century, it gives the sense of nostalgia and solitude of both Dead Man and Nobody, of all people who live together but live in dread, dread of their own language, language of GUN. On the other hand, during the film, black and white space gives the massage of DEATH, the great mystery which there is no specific color for visualizing it. So, Black and white is another contradiction.
Dead Man is composed by Neil Young; the instrumental soundtrack of film which is mostly Electric guitar switches occasionally to pump organ, detuned piano and acoustic guitar. It is a weird soundtrack which is fit to a western film. Totally, it's a different western movie and it's not an easy film to understand.

WASHINGTON (AFP) - President George W. Bush Tuesday said Iran is still a danger and refused to take military options off the table, despite a US intelligence report saying it had halted its nuclear weapons program in 2003.

"Iran was dangerous, Iran is dangerous and Iran will be dangerous if they have the knowledge necessary to make a nuclear weapon." Bush said.

Americans see Iran as a big danger against universal peace

They believed Iran is trying to learn how to enrich uranium and is trying to achieve great successes in nuclear weapon and could restart the atomic weapons programme anytime.
National Intelligence Estimate argues Iran is following a secret nuclear weapons program.
Their opinion is that America tried to prevent World War III, but Iran remains as a threat for war.

They found keeping the international pressure on Iran the best way to suspend its program and ensure peace in the world.

They may warn Iran "You can continue to do policy that will isolate you, or there's a better way forward" so it is Sticks-and-carrots approach against nuclear power.